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STATE  OF  NEW  JERSEY 

DEPARTMENT  OF  PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION 

TRENTON 


The  Teaching  of 

Geography,   History 

and    Civics 


JUNE   1917 


I      c 

ii«AY  6      1929   : 


l^.J 


Southern  Branch' 
of  the 

University  of  California 

Los  Angeles 

Form  L-1 

i  5  0,3 


I 


•sojg  pjoiXBo    Hi}|l!i|ijlij: 


HfciKAKY, 
tUOS  ANGELF-S,  CALIF. 

STATE    OF   NEW   JERSEY 

DEPARTMENT    OF    PUBLIC    INSTRUCTION 

TRENTON 


The  Teaching  of 

Geography,    History 

and    Civics 


JUNE    1917 


\j  J.,  jk. 


TRENTON,  N.  J. 
MacCbkujsh  &  QuiGLET  Co.,  State  Printers 

1917 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Foreword     5 

Introduction    9 

Summary  of  course  of  study  18 

Part  I — Geography 

Grades  II  to  IV — Introductory  23 

Course  of  study    28 

Grade    II    28 

Supplementary  and  reference  books  30 

Grade    III    30 

Supplementary  and  reference  books    35 

Grade    IV    35 

Supplementary   and   reference  books    41 

Grades  V  to  VII — Suggested  time  allotment  43 

Grade  V — North  America  with  special  stress  upon  United  States  and 

New   Jersey    45 

North  America    48 

United   States    51 

New  Jersey    53 

Application  of  certain  principles  of  geography  54 

Supplementary  and  reference  books    61 

Grade  VI — Continents  of  Eastern  Hemisphere   63 

Europe     64 

i         Asia    73 

Africa   77 

Australia  and  New  Zealand  78 

Supplementary  and  reference  books  79 

Grade  VII — South  America,  Mexico,  Central  America,  Canada,  etc.  . .  81 

South    America    81 

Mexico    89 

Central  America  90 

Canada 90 

Nova  Scotia,  New  Brunswick  and  Newfoundland  92 

Principles  of  geography    92 

World   review    97 

Supplementary  and  reference  books  102 

Part  II — History  and  Civics  as  Social  Studies 

P\indamental    principles   to    observe   in    all    instruction   in    primary 

grades    103 

Grade   II   problems    108 

Supplementary  and  reference  books   109 


(3) 


4 

Page 

Grade  III  problems   110 

Supplementary  and  reference  booka    115 

Grade  rv  problems   115 

History     116 

Civics     122 

Supplementary  and  Teference  books    123 

Grade   V    124 

History    124 

Civics     132 

Supplementary  and  reference  books   140 

Grade    VI    141 

History    141 

Civics     14C 

Supplementary  and  reference  books   147 

Grade    VII    148 

History    148 

Civics     168 

Supplementarj'  and  reference  booka    168 

Grade    VIII    169 

History    169 

Civics    174 

Supplementary  and  reference  books  168 

Appendices 

A.  Reference   books    177 

B.  Lesson  plans    179 

Geography    179 

Grade  V    179 

Grade   VI    183 

Grade  VII   187 

History     196 

Grade   V    196 

Grade  VII    199 

Grade  VIII    206 

Civics— Grade  VIII    21i 


FOREWORD 

This  monograph  discusses  the  teaching  of  History,  Geography 
and  Civics  in  the  elementary  schools. 

It  contains  a  course  of  study  in  each  of  these  subjects.  While 
these  are  treated  separately,  they  are  all  parts  of  the  one  general 
subject,  Social  Studies.  An  attempt  has  been  made  to  establish 
a  relationship  between  the  three. 

These  subjects  are  of  great  value.  They  are,  after  Reading, 
among  the  most  useful  in  the  common  school  curriculum.  They 
have  a  direct  relation  to  good  citizenship — the  great  purpose  of 
the  schools — as  few  other  subjects  have.  Their  study  is  neces- 
sary if  we  recognize  the  importance  of  man's  relation  to  his 
fellows.  They  furnish  abundant  life,  which  is  not  their  sole 
practical  value  but  is  a  part  of  their  value.  They  are  full  of 
interest  and  content  as  no  other  subjects  are,  literature  alone 
excepted.  They  furnish  resources  for  the  use  of  leisure  time.  (If  "^ 
well  taught,  they  inspire  patriotism,  appreciation  of  one's  country, 
and  recognition  of  one's  obligation  to  serve  it.     1 

They  cultivate,  if  well  taught,  tolerance,  imagination  and 
judgment. 

They  make  large  demands  upon  the  teacher.  The  wider  her 
reading,  the  more  she  has  studied,  the  more  she  has  traveled,  the 
larger  her  vision,  so  much  the  better  teacher  will  she  be,  pro- 
vided she  does  not  talk  too  much  in  recitations — the  temptation 
of  the  teacher,  particularly  in  these  subjects.  If  she  knows  how 
to  get  work  from  pupils,  if  she  has  a  positive  enthusiasm  for  the 
worth  of  geography,  history  and  civics,  and  can  make  this 
enthusiasm  contagious,  the  results  of  her  teaching  can  be  no 
other  than  to  make  some  community  and  neighborhood  of  the 
future  a  better  community  and  neighborhood  for  men,  women 
and  children  to  live  in  because  she  has  been  a  teacher  there. 

It  is  generally  recognized  that  the  selection  of  teaching  ma- 
terial for  these  subjects  is  difficult.  (Their  range  is  so  wide,  their 
content  is  increasing  so  constantly,  their  relation  to  the  needs 
of  everyday  life  is  so  intimate,  that  selection  of  material  requires 
great  discrimination  as  to  what  is  most  worth  while  for  boys 
and  girls.  ]  Many  subjects  desirable  for  instruction  must  be 
omitted.     It  would  not  be  possible  to  find  any  two  persons  who 

(5) 


would  agree  upon  this  selection  of  material.  This  monograph 
in  this  respect  is  the  consensus  of  opinion,  not  only  of  the  mem- 
bers of  this  Department,  but  of  a  number  of  teachers  in  the 
state  whose  opinion  has  l>een  sought.  In  planning  this  course  of 
study  the  ages  and  capabilities  of  children  have  been  taken  into 
account.  They  are  not  men  and  women.  Many  topics  desirable 
in  themselves  must  be  left  for  high  school  instruction  or  for 
subsequent  study. 

One  difficulty  in  planning  a  course  of  study  for  an  entire 
state  consists  in  the  fact  that  there  is  a  great  diversity  of  text- 
books in  use — a  fact  not  without  merit  in  itself.  The  grade  by 
grade  treatment  must  therefore  be  set  forth  by  topics  or  subjects 
which  any  modern  textbook  should  contain.  It  has  not  been 
possible  to  refer  to  pages  in  books.  Indeed  it  is  often  desirable 
that  lessons  should  be  set  by  topics,  by  the  use  of  the  blackboard^ 
and  by  consulting  the  tables  of  contents  and  indices.  The  teacher 
should  make  the  children  intelligent  and  quick  users  of  tables  of 
contents  and  indices. 

It  would  be  a  great  mistake  to  attempt  to  teach  to  children 
with  equal  thoroughness  all  within  the  given  textbooks  in  these 
subjects.  It  cannot  be  done  nor  is  it  desirable  that  it  should  be 
done. 

The  preparation  of  no  other  pamphlet  issued  by  the  Depart- 
ment has  involved  so  much  time  and  effort  as  this  one.  It  has 
been  the  work  chiefly  of  Mr.  Zenos  E.  Scott,  Assistant  Com- 
missioner in  charge  of  Elementary  Schools.  He  has  had  the 
advice,  counsel  and  help  of  many  teachers  throughout  tlie  state. 
It  is  not  practicable  to  name  all  these  persons,  but  among  them 
are  the  following  who  have  made  contributions. 

Don  C.  Bliss,  Sui^erintendent  of  Schools,  Montclair 
Charles  B.  Boyer,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Atlantic  City 
E.  C.  Broome,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  East  Orange 
Marion  G.  Clark,  Head  of  Department  of  History,  State  Normal 

School,  Newark 
David  B.  Corson,  Assistant  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Newark 
Warren  N.  Drum,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Millville 
Sarah  A.  Dynes,  Department  of  History,  State  Normal  School^ 

Trenton 
H.  W.  Foster,  Supervising  Principal.  South  Orange 
Christopher  Gregory,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Long  Branch 


Ella  Huntting,  Instructor  in  Geography,  State  Normal  School, 

Montclair 
Amos  E.  Kraybill,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Asbury  Park 
Ebenezer  Mackey,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Trenton 
J.  Cayce  Morrison,  Supervising  Principal,  Chatham 
A.  B.  Poland,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Newark 
Paul  R.  Radcliffe,  Supervising  Principal,  Red  Bank 
Susan  E.  Riley,  Department  of  Geography,  State  Normal  School, 

Trenton 
J.  J.  Savitz,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Westfield 
W.  E.  Stark,  Supervising  Principal,  Hackensack 
Florence  E.   Stryker,   Head  of  Department  of  History,   State 

Normal  School,  Montclair 
Jolin  R.  Wilson,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Paterson 
Many  of  the  County  Superintendents  and  Helping  Teachers  of 

the  State 

This  help  has  been  invaluable  and  it  is  a  pleasure  to  record  our 
appreciation  of  the  services  rendered. 

CaIvVIn  N.  Kendall 
Commissioner  of  Bdtication 


THE  TEACHING  OF  GEOGRAPHY,  HISTORY 

AND  CIVICS 


INTRODUCTION 

Geography,  History  and  Civics  _are  subjects  that  have  much 
to  do  with  the  social  side  of  life.  As  social  subjects  they  furnish 
material  which  may  be  so  used  that  those  who  study  them  care- 
fully may  be  better  able  to  live  in  right  relationship  with  estab- 
iished  social  customs  and  practices.  This  monograph  is  not  so 
much  an  effort  to  show  the  way  in  which  these  subjects  may  be 
correlated  as  it  is  an  attempt  to  show  the  necessity  of  teaching 
them  as  different  phases  of  the  same  social  subject. 

There  is  one  large  question  which  these  subjects  attempt  to 
answer:  how  does  man  manage  to  live  and  populate  the  earth? 
This  may  be  broken  up  into  many  lesser  questions  which  tend 
to  emphasize  particular  aspects  of  the  subject.  For  example, 
why  should  a  farmer  study  soils?  why  does  a  merchant  insure 
his  goods?  why  should  a  fifth  grade  pupil  learn  where  cotton  is 
grown  ?  why  should  all  children  learn  how  to  make  change  ?  how 
does  man  control  the  forces  of  nature?  how  does  climate  affect 
plant  life?  how  has  cotton  growing  affected  life  in  the  South? 
how  does  moisture  affect  man's  chances  for  a  livelihood?  how 
does  man's  action  affect  his  neighbor?  how  did  man  come  to 
need  law?  how  does  honest  living  make  for  good  citizenship? 
Any  or  all  of  these  problems  have  to  do  with  some  phase  of 
maiVs  activities  in  his  efforts  to  live  upon  the  eaxtlL.  In  concrete 
form  these  questions  are  of  interest  to  elementary  school  children ; 
in  more  abstract  form  they  are  of  interest  to  the  more  mature. 

All  these  questions  center  about  the  topics :  ( i )  the  earth  as 
the  home  of  man,  and  (2)  the  efforts  of  man  to  make  a  home  on 
earth.  The  need,  then,  is  not  to  teach  the  separate  subjects, 
geography,  history  and  civics,  as  subjects  to  be  correlated,  but 
rather  to  teach  the  fundamental  conception — man  in  his  efforts 
to  live  on  the  earth,  as  shown  through  geography,  history  and 
civics.  If  this  manner  of  approach  is  correct,  it  is  of  utmost 
importance  for  the  supervisor  and  the  teacher  to  think  through 

(9) 


10 


these  subjects  in  the  light  of  this  large  organization  and  to  be 
prepared  to  teach  boys  and  girls  how  to  live  in  a  social  way  by 
using  the  material  found  in  geography,  history  and  civics.  We 
are,  then,  to  see  man,  first,  as  a  changing  creature  affected  by 
his  environment,  and  second,  as  an  actor,  a  living  force  affecting 
his  environment. 

TEACHING  POSSIBILITIES 

The  subjects  geography,  history  and  civics  are  richer  in  con- 
tent than  any  other  group  of  subjects  in  the  elementary  school 
curriculum.  They  must  be  taught  in  such  a  way,  therefore,  that 
boys  and  girls  will  obtain  from  them  attitudes  of  mind,  controls 
in  their  daily  lives.  For  example,  heroes  and  leaders  are  to  fur- 
nish stimulus  for  individual  ambition  and  develop  reverence  for 
men  and  women  who  are  carrying  heavy  burdens  and  discharging 
great  responsibilities.  Through  geography  they  must  obtain  a 
feeling  for  industry  and  labor,  a  sense  of  responsibility  for  right 
use  and  conservation  of  natural  resources.  In  comparison  with 
the  attainment  of  such  attitudes,  the  mastery  of  the  facts  of  these 
subjects  zvill  akuays  be  of  small  value.  It  is  impossible  to  accom- 
plish what  is  indicated  in  the  foregoing  unless  the  teacher  has 
interest  in  her  work,  unless  her  scholarship,  her  love  for  children 
and  for  the  subject  matter  are  used  as  more  important  factors 
than  textbooks  or  a  given  course  of  study. 

MINIMUM  ESSENTIALS  FOR   THE   TEACHER 

Before  beginning  a  lesson  the  teacher  shouid  jiave : 

1.  A  definite  idea  of  what  she  expects  to  accomplish  in  that 
lesson,  and  of  the  importance  of  the  given  lesson  in  connection 
with  all  the  lessons  to  be  taught  on  a  given  topic. 

2.  A  thorough,  concise  knowledge  or  mastery  of  the  lesson, 
so  that  she  may  teach  zvithont  a  textbook. 

3.  The  successive  steps  planned,  the  large  questions  thought 
out,  in  order  to  reach  the  desired  results. 

4.  The  apparatus  for  teaching  at  hand  and  ready  for  use — 
modeling  table,  maps,  globe,  colored  crayon,  reference  material 
and  textbooks. 

5.  Assignment  made  so  definite  and  clear  that  pupils  will  be 
stimulated  to  do  their  best  work. 


II 

6.  A  determination  to  conduct  the  recitation  in  such  a  way 
that  the  pupils  will  have  opportunities  for  exercise  of  their 
emotional  and  volitional  natures. 

7.  A  still  more  firm  resolution  to  have  the  attention  of  all 
members  of  the  class  and  not  only  of  a  few. 

USE  OF  BOOKS 

In  each  of  these  subjects  the  teacher  should  have  several  reci- 
tations during  the  year  when  the  whole  point  of  the  recitation 
wonid  be  to  teach  the  pupil  how  to  use  the  book,  and  to  encourage 
him  to  refer  to  it  when  studying  other  subjects.  In  such  recita- 
tions the  pupils  should  have  their  books  open  and  follow  the 
directions  of  the  teacher,  or  of  the  monitors  from  the  class  whom 
she  might  appoint,  referring  to  table  of  contents  to  understand 
how  the  text  organized  a  given  subject,  consulting  the  references 
that  are  found  on  certain  pages,  referring  to  the  index,  and 
referring  to  maps,  charts,  and  pictures.  In  fact,  much  of  the 
recitation  work  should  be  conducted  with  pupils'  books  open 
before  them.  In  each  case  the  teacher  should  lead  the  way  in 
showing  the  pupils  how  to  make  use  of  the  textbook.  The  text- 
book should  be  considered  as  a  tool.  Its  table  of  contents,  index, 
maps,  pictures,  references,  should  be  thought  of  as  keys  to  help 
unlock  its  mines  of  information. 

METHOD  OF  ASSIGNMENT 

In  making  assignments  the  teacher  must  bear  in  mind  that 
not  all  parts  of  th^  textbook  are  to  be  used.  The  material  in  the 
textbook  should  be  used  only  as  a  guide  which  indicates  how 
information  and  help  may  be  obtained.  Therefore,  assignments 
should  seldom  be  made  page  by  page.  On  the  other  hand,  assign- 
ments should  ahuays  be  made  with  reference  to  the  way  in  which 
a  given  paragraph,  a  part  of  a  page,  a  map,  a  picture,  will  help 
to  answer  the  problem  under  consideration.  This  means  that 
the  pupils  and  teacher  must  work  out  in  some  detail  what  they 
want  to  accompHsh  before  an  assignment  is  made.  The  assign- 
ment for  the  following  recitation  should  as  a  rule  be  made  at 
the  beginning  of  the  recitation.  Sufficient  time  should  he  taken 
in  making  this  assignment  to  insure  that  the  pupils  understand 
what  is  zvanted  of  them,  how  they  are  to  attack  the  problem, 
what  material  they  are  to  u~se  in  securing  an  answer,  and  the  type 
of  response  thai  is  expected  of  them. 


12 


\ 


SECXTBINO  PXTPn.  COOPEHATION  AMD  INITIATIVE 

No  subjects  in  our  school  course  offer  better  possibilities  of 
securing  pupil  cooperation  and  initiative  than  geography,  history 
and  civics.  In  each  subject,  beginning  as  early  as  the  third  grade, 
the  pupils  should  be  taught  to  challenge  each  other's  opinions  and 
expressions.  In  this  regard  they  should  be  taught  to  talk  politely 
and  intelligently,  giving  the  reasons  for  their  criticism  of  a 
given  individual's  work.  If  this  principle  is  carried  out,  by  the 
time  the  pupils  reach  the  sixth  and  seventh  grades  they  will  have 
developed  initiative  and  resourcefulness  enough  to  keep  them 
ever  alert  when  anyone  else  is  reciting  or  when  they  themselves 
are  reading.  There  is  no  better  way  to  teach  a  pupil  to  sense  the 
values  of  what  he  hears  or  reads  than  through  stimulating 
geography,  history  and  civics  teaching.  Pupil  initiative  is  in- 
creased a  hundredfold  when  teachers  give  pupils  the  opportunity 
to  help  make  the  assignment,  to  help  find  the  points  that  ought 
to  be  worked  over  in  class.  Therefore,  pupils  in  the  fourth  or 
fifth  grade  should  begin  to  help  the  teacher  select  subject  matter 
which  will  assist  them  in  satisfying  their  wants.  The  pupils 
should  ask  questions  in  each  recitation.  If  they  have  the  habit 
of  asking  as  many  questions  in  school  as  they  do  at  home  and 
on  the  playground,  the  teacher  may  feel  sure  that  she  is  succeed- 
ing. The  cooperation  which  they  practice,  the  responsibility 
which  they  share,  as  indicated  above,  will  be  no  small  factors  in 
furnishing  them  controls  for  living. 


AIMS  IN  GEOGEAPHT  TEACHING 


To  do  the  best  work  in  any  subject  a  teacher  must  understand 
the  general  aims  of  that  subject  plus  the  specific  aims  of  its 
smaller  units.  This  does  not  ignore  the  fact  that  children  vary 
with  respect  both  to  their  abilities  and  to  the  stages  in  their 
development;  but  it  does  emphasize  the  fact  that  the  given  sub- 
ject matter  itself  presents  certain  facts  and  principles  which  in 
themselves  teach  definite  truths.  The  general  aims  of  geography 
as  taught  in  the  elementary  school  are  at  least  three. 

1.  Earth  adapted  to  man.    Geography  attempts  to  show  the 

child  that  the  earth  is  suitable  for  man's  habitation.     For  ex- 

^  \    ample,  man  must  have  food,  shelter  and  clothing,  and  he  should 

also  have  an  opportunity  to  work  at  a  regular  occupation,  and 

a  chance  for  recreation  and  leisure.    It  is  true  that  he  could  live 


13 

if  he  had  only  food,  clothing  and  shelter,  but  he  would  not 
advance  rapidly  in  civilization.  Therefore  geography  must  con- 
sider the  questions  of  man's  chance  for  an  occupation  and  his 
chance  for  leisure  as  well  as  the  three  necessities  generally 
named.  Geography  should  be  studied  in  such  a  way  as  to  bring 
out  the  facts  that  certain  sections  of  the  earth  yield  more  and 
better  food  than  others,  that  certain  sections  offer  better  oppor- 
tunities for  city  building  than  others,  that  certain  places  offer 
better  facilities  for  transportation  than  others,  that  certain  occu- 
pations are  more  profitably  carried  on  in  some  places  than  in 
others — all  these  illustrate  to  the  child  that  the  earth  is  a  suitable 
place  where  man  may  live.  Since  geography  must  deal  with 
the  facts  of  the  earth  and  the  many  people  on  the  earth  in  their 
influence  upon  one  another,  it  is  necessary  to  study  man  as  a 
being  who  toils,  and  as  a  being  who  enjoys  both  toil  and  leisure. 

2.  Useful  ideas  of  location.  Geography  should  be  so  taught 
that  the  child  may  get  certain  definite  ideas  concerning  the  loca- 
tion, the  character  and  the  significance  of  important  places  or 
regions  on  the  earth's  surface.  In  the  case  of  our  own  State, 
New  Jersey,  the  child  should  know  its  location  with  respect  to  the 
other  eastern  states;  how  its  location  determines  its  climate; 
the  location  of  the  most  important  cities  of  the  state;  the  loca- 
tion of  certain  great  areas  that  are  especially  suitable  for  the 
development  of  large  industries,  e.  g.,  potato  growing  sections, 
dairying  sections,  manufacturing  and  shipping  sections. 

3.  Interdependence  of  man.  A  third  aim  of  geography  is  to 
show  that  man  must  work  intelligently  if  he  is  to  get  the  most 
out  of  his  opportunities  here,  for  he  is  dependent  upon  such 
things  as  climate,  soil,  and  the  like,  and  also  upon  the  coopera- 
tion of  his  fellow  man.  The  child  can  understand,  for  example, 
that  the  pencil  which  he  uses  in  school  is  the  product  of  the 
labor  of  many  different  men;  that  the  book  which  he  reads  is 
the  result  of  the  work  of  many,  many  people.  When  he  sees 
that  so  many  different  persons  have  each  had  a  definite  part  in 
the  making  of  the  pencil  or  the  book,  he  can  begin  to  realize 
what  is  meant  by  the  interdependence  of  man.  One  of  the  chief 
aims  of  geography  is  to  teach  the  general  interdependence  of 
mankind. 

When  the  teacher  is  conscious  of  these  three  general  aims 
that  are  within  the  subject  matter  itself,  she  can  appreciate  the 


^4 

fact  that  her  task  is  to  utilize  the  ability  of  the  pupil  to  the  best 
advantage  possible  in  order  that  he  may  interpret  the  earth 
through  the  study  of  geography.  The  teacher  is  then  better 
fitted  to  go  with  the  child  in  his  experience  of  observing  nature. 
She  is  more  ready  to  give  him  opportunity  to  use  his  imagination 
and  to  rememl^er  such  facts  as  have  a  definite  meaning  to  him ; 
more  ready  to  direct  his  reasoning  ability  in  dealing  with  the 
main  causal  relations  that  come  up  in  the  study  of  geography; 
more  ready  to  direct  his  emotional  and  volitional  response  when 
he  is  dealing  with  the  human  problems  of  making  the  soil  yield 
a  sustenance,  of  carrying  on  transportation  in  the  best  way  and 
at  the  least  cost ;  more  ready,  in  short,  to  help  him  to  become  an 
active,  intelligent  and  cooperating  being  on  earth. 

AIMS  m  HISTORY  TEACHING 

The  subject  matter  of  history  is  so  rich  in  its  record  of 
struggles,  of  the  growth  of  government,  of  ambitions  of  men 
and  countries,  of  ideals  and  attitudes  of  mind  of  the  world's 
great  leaders,  of  stages  in  civilization,  that  its  aims  must  be 
definitely  fixed  if  it  is  to  be  presented  adequately.  History  teach- 
ing should  center  around  the  following  important  objectives. 

1.  Useful  information.  The  child  should  become  familiar 
with  important  history  facts  in  order  that  he  may  understand 
our  country's  growth  and  may  have  a  fund  of  information  w^hich 
will  make  him  an  intelligent  participant  in  the  life  of  his  com- 
munity. For  example,  everyone  should  have  a  knowledge  of 
the  motives  of  the  nations  that  settled  America.  A  knowledge 
of  the  financial  conditions  of  our  country  at  the  time  of  the  for- 
mation of  the  Union  would  enable  a  pupil  to  better  appreciate 
the  worth  of  such  a  man  as  Hamilton. 

These  two  illustrations  indicate  relative  values  in  judging 
items  of  information.  The  first — the  motives  of  the  nations 
that  settled  America — is  of  such  scope  that  it  represents  an 
historical  truth,  in  fact,  a  principle.  It  would  take  careful 
organization  of  the  work  of  a  week  to  make  the  idea  stand  out 
clear.  The  idea  or  principle  gained  would  need  to  be  used  over 
and  over  again  in  interpreting  other  movements  in  American 
history.  The  second  topic — the  financial  conditions  of  our 
country  at  the  time  of  the  formation  of  the  Union — is  of  value 
not  so  much  for  its  relation  to  big  movements  in  history  as  for 


15 

the  importance  it  attaches  to  great  leaders.  The  first  topic 
would  need  direct  study  for  three  or  four  days;  the  second 
should  be  mastered  in  one  or  two  recitations. 

2.  Political  and  civic  ideals.  History  continually  sets  forth 
political  and  civic  ideals.  An  important  aim,  then,  is  that  of 
active  citizenship.  For  example,  a  sixth  grade  pupil  can  be 
made  to  see  that  if  he  is  to  be  a  valuable  young  citizen  he  must 
be  willing  to  obey  the  laws  of  his  community,  he  must  honor 
the  great  men  of  his  country.  As  he  grows  older  he  should 
put  more  and  more  meaning  into  such  experience  because  of  his 
increasing  appreciation  of  the  history  of  his  country.  On  the 
basis  of  this  element  alone,  American  history  is  justified  as  a 
required  subject  in  the  elementary  school  curriculum. 

3.  Appreciation  of  national  leaders.  Efficient  history  teach- 
ing aims  to  develop  an  appreciation  of  the  heroes,  heroines  and 
leaders  in  our  national  life.  To  this  end  the  heroes,  heroines 
and  leaders  must  be  shown  to  be  real  men  and  women  who 
struggled  and  conquered  in  their  efforts  to  help  build  up  our 
country.  When  boys  and  girls  get  from  reading  and  studying 
history  a  keen  appreciation  of  the  lives  of  Washington,  Lincoln, 
Adams,  Jefferson,  etc.,  they  have  obtained  that  which  will  help 
them  to  be  better  Americans.  Our  country  means  "Opportunity" 
to  an  increasing  number  of  people  each  year.  We  should  strive  to 
lead  our  boys  and  girls  to  realize  the  great  blessings  that  come 
to  them  because  they  are  Americans,  and  the  great  advantages 
and  opportunities  that  are  theirs  if  they  are  law-abiding,  true 
American  citizens. 

4.  National  solidarity.  History  teaching  also  aims  to  show 
that  men  are  dependent  upon  one  another  if  any  great  move- 
ment is  to  be  made  successful ;  that  nations  must  respect  the 
rights  of  other  countries  and  must  work  for  the  common  good  of 
their  subjects  and  one  another  if  they  are  to  add  a  positive  value 
to  civilization.  For  example,  in  teaching  why  our  early  colonists 
had  to  unite,  the  greatest  value  is  gained  if  the  pupil  sees  that 
in  order  to  be  successful,  men  had  to  depend  on  one  another. 
He  can  see  the  dependence  of  one  nation  upon  another  in  the 
work  of  Perry  in  opening  the  ports  of  Japan  to  our  trade,  or 
in  the  laws  governing  immigration  to  the  United  States,  in  the 
enforcement  of  which  several  other  nations  cooperate  v^th  us. 


i6 

AIMS  IN   CIVIO   TEACHING 

Civics  is  not  a  subject  in  itself  but  is  rather  one  aspect  of  the 
subject  of  history.  Since  its  ultimate  use  is  to  encourage  good 
habits  of  living  in  the  community  and  state,  its  aims  must  be 
carefully  considered.  At  least  five  general  purposes  have  been 
worked  out  so  far  in  this  new  emphasis  toward  habits  of  good 
citizenship. 

1.  Responsibility  to  society.  Civics  aims  to  present  to  the 
child  such  facts  as  will  cause  him  to  realize  that  he  is  a  respon- 
sible member  of  a  group  in  society;  that  he  has  more  or  less 
direct  connections  with  several  groups.  For  example,  he  can 
easily  see  that  he  is  a  responsible  member  of  his  class  in  history ; 
he  can  easily  see  that  he  is  a  member  of  the  class  with  which  he 
studies,  a  member  of  the  elementary  school  of  which  his  class  is 
a  part,  perhaps  a  member  of  a  baseball  team  representing  his 
school  in  a  group  of  schools  of  equal  rank.  In  any  such  case, 
civics  shows  him  that  if  he  is  to  be  helpful  he  must  take  an  active 
part. 

2.  Union  of  home  and  school.  Civics  aims  to  reach  beyond 
the  immediate  classroom  or  school  to  which  a  child  goes,  and  to 
show  that  the  school  and  the  home  have  very  much  in  common. 

3.  Right  attitude  of  mind.  As  historical  facts  gave  the  child  a 
fund  of  information  which  tended  to  make  him  an  intelligent 
citizen,  so  civics  tends  to  give  him  an  attitude  of  mind,  a  mode 
of  behavior,  which  will  start  him  on  the  road  to  right  action. 
Civics  not  only  teaches  the  divisions  of  government  and  their 
functions,  but  it  also  prepares  the  young  child  to  begin  the  correct 
exercise  of  his  powers  and  his  initiative  in  becoming  a  factor  in 
that  government. 

4.  Habits  of  truthfulness,  obedience  to  law,  cooperation,  service 
to  state.  Civics  aims  to  provide  opportunities  for  active  partici- 
pation in  such  experiences  as  will  give  motives  for  habits  of 
truthfulness,  of  obedience  to  law  and  order,  of  happy  coopera- 
tion, of  neatness,  and  of  service  to  the  community  and  state. 

5.  Love  of  country.  Civics  also  aims  to  develop  a  permanent 
and  enthusiastic  love  and  loyalty  for  the  United  States.  Children 
should  recognize  the  obligation  they  owe  to  their  country.  They 
should  be  made  ready  to  ofifer  their  wealth,  their  best  efforts, 
their  lives,  for  the  furtherance  of  the  ideals  of  their  country. 
Civics  rightly  taught  assists  history  in  this  important  work. 


These  aims  in  geography,  history  and  civics  should  be  studied 
carefully  by  all  teachers  in  the  elementary  schools.  Those 
teachers  who  are  to  give  instruction  in  these  subjects  should  be 
able  to  put  such  intelligent  meaning  into  the  aims  that  their 
teaching  will  be  constantly  influenced  by  these  large  ideals.  // 
the  teacher  has  a  clear  vision  as  to  the  nature  of  the  children 
whom  she  is  to  teach,  if  she  sees  what  part  the  given  subjects 
are  to  have  in  furnishing  controls  for  these  children,  if  she 
teaches  ivith  these  aims  in  the  foreground,  she  is  utilising  the 
subject  matter  in  such  a  way  that  it  will  help  her  pupils  to  grow 
into  more  socially  efficient  boys  and  girls. 


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PART  I 
GEOGRAPHY 

GRADES  II  TO  IV 

GENEBAL  IDEA 

According  to  the  way  in  which  the  mind  of  a  child  grows  and 
the  way  in  which  our  schools  are  at  present  conducted,  it  is  neces- 
sary for  the  child  to  spend  the  first  four  or  five  school  years  in 
learning  how  to  use  his  school  experience  to  the  best  advantage. 
While  his  rate  of  mental  expansion  is  rapid,  yet  his  beginning 
work  is  one  of  getting  sense  impressions.  His  ability  to  make 
sense  impressions  over  into  ideas  is  limited  both  by  the  nature 
of  his  mind  and  by  the  materials  with  which  he  must  work. 

With  this  thought  definitely  in  mind,  during  these  early  grades 
our  teaching  procedure  with  respect  to  geography,  history  and 
civics  must  necessarily  change.  We  must  no  longer  expect  a 
partially  finished  product  in  information  getting,  but  we  must 
expect  and  demand  an  attitude  of  mind  which  reaches  out  a-nd 
wants  to  get  information. 

Much  of  our  common  practice  in  geography  has  been  such 
that  the  young  child  dealing  with  a  textbook  in  this  subject,  in 
grade  III  or  IV,  for  example,  necessarily  gains  a  few  unrelated 
facts.  The  textbook  has  presented  isolated  facts ;  the  teacher 
perforce  has  stressed  them. 

Again,  this  method  of  presentation  has  neglected  the  concrete, 
the  tangible  in  the  subject,  and  also  the  child  who  is  to  do  the 
experimenting.  Such  neglect  has  been  unfortunate,  for  it  has 
ignored  what  the  childish  mind  wanted  and  has  forced  it  to  take 
a  thing  which  it  could  not  use,  namely,  unrelated  information, 
which  had  little  value  for  sense  impression,  imagination  or  child 
enthusiasm. 

If  the  pupil  in  the  primary  grades  is  to  be  interested  in  Nature 
and  to  learn  about  her  through  geography,  he  must  do  it  by 
having  a  first  hand  touch  with  her.  Our  teaching,  then,  must 
break  away  from  the  idea  of  textbook  information  in  grades  III 
and  IV  and  utilize  exercises  which  deal  with  particular  concrete 
earth  experiences — those  in  which  the  child  can  take  a  real,  active 
part.     Such  procedure  eliminates  the  possibility  of  continually 

(23) 


24 

repeating  facts  in  the  fourth  grade  that  were  gone  over  in  the 
third.  The  use  of  objects  in  nature,  of  pictures  and  lantern 
shdes,  offers  the  child  more  chance  for  imaginative  experience 
than  any  amount  of  textbook  reading. 

Too  often  it  has  been  the  practice  in  our  history  work  to  give 
the  pupil  in  the  fourth  grade  a  condensed  textbook.  As  a  rule, 
the  whole  field  of  American  history  is  gone  over  in  this  way 
during  the  fourth  year.  The  fifth  year  work  repeats  the  pro- 
cess. In  too  many  cases  the  sixth  grade  again  repeats  the  process, 
although  here  a  textbook  a  little  less  condensed  is  used.  Thus 
by  the  time  the  child  has  reached  the  age  when  he  ought  to  under- 
:^tand  history  and  have  a  love  for  it,  all  his  interest  and  enthusiasm 
are  gone  because  the  facts  that  he  learned  in  the  early  grades  do 
not  increase  in  value  as  he  grows  older.  There  is  little  wonder 
that  he  has  a  distaste  for  history.  In  order  to  change  this  pro- 
cedure our  work  must  be  recast  in  accordance  with  what  the  child 
needs  for  his  immediate  use,  plus  what  we,  as  teachers,  know 
society  is  to  demand  of  him  in  the  future. 

ECONOMY  OF  TIME 

In  order  that  our  elementary  grades  may  use  the  most  im- 
portant parts  of  the  subjects  already  established  in  our  curriculum 
and  make  provision  for  the  new  phases  of  work  that  are  being 
added,  it  is  necessary  for  the  teachers  to  present  these  subjects 
according  to  their  relative  values.  For  example,  in  grades  I  to 
IV  the  work  in  the  elementary  schools  could  be  so  done  that 
much  time  would  be  released  for  primary  hand-work.  Approxi- 
mately six  recitations  a  week  of  15  to  25  minutes  each  ought  to 
be  sufficient  for  geography  and  civics  in  these  grades. 

This  arrangement  gives  an  opportunity  for  the  primary  grades 
to  l)e  more  directly  responsible  for  the  industrial  activities  of  the 
children.  The  teaching  of  geography,  history  and  civics  will  be 
enhanced,  for  very  much  of  the  hand-work  can  center  around 
practical  work  in  these  subjects.  For  example,  work  in  geography 
offers  many  opportunities  for  pupils  to  make  paper  cuttings, 
pai^er  folding  and  sand  models  to  represent  objects  talked  about. 
Industrial  work  in  history  and  civics  offers  opportunities  for 
home  building,  settlement  representation  and  implement  modeling. 


25 


CONCRETE  IN  GEOGRAPHY 


In  keeping  with  the  foregoing  principles,  the  work  in  geog- 
raphy in  grades  II  to  IV  must  be  concrete,  not  in  particular 
isolated  facts  but  in  the  material  presented.  For  example,  the 
idea  "spring"  must  be  presented  to  the  child  through  the  green 
grass,  the  blooming  violet,  the  budding  Easter  lily.  The  idea 
"need  for  shelter  and  clothing''  must  be  presented  to  him  through 
the-  playhouse  as  he  makes  it,  the  reed  hut  or  leather  moccasin 
or  woolen  coat.  He  must  get  the  idea  "hill"  through  his  molding 
at  the  sand  table,  or  through  his  experience  in  climbing  a  knoll 
in  the  school  yard,  or  better  still,  in  his  excursion  up  a  slope  in 
the  field.  His  idea  of  "trade"  in  the  early  grades  must  develop 
through  trade  experience  in  the  school  and  home,  through  visits 
to  shops,  through  educational  moving  pictures,  or  through  pic- 
tures in  the  textbooks  and  mounted  pictures  from  the  library 
which  show  trade  routes,  men  at  work  in  the  trades,  ships,  rail- 
way trains,  auto  trucks,  carts,  etc.  Such  teaching  makes  the  text- 
book a  tool  in  the  hands  of  the  teacher ;  makes  parts  of  the  text- 
book in  the  hands  of  the  pupil  a  tool  through  the  use  of  which 
he  gets  sensing  experiences. 

It  is  not  advisable  to  use  a  textbook  in  history  and  civics  in 
these  grades.  Biographical  books  and  books  presenting  histor}- 
in  story  form  can  be  used  as  supplementary  reading  material. 
In  geography  also  no  textbook  should  be  used  until  the  fourth 
grade  is  reached.  In  this  grade  an  elementary  textbook  should 
be  put  into  the  hands  of  the  pupil.  Simple  geographical  readers 
and  books  describing  child  life  in  other  lands  can  be  used  to 
advantage  as  supplementary  reading  material.  One  function  of 
these  supplementary  books  is  to  give  the  children  enjoyment 
through  reading  about  how  other  children  live.  Such  teaching 
makes  tangible  environment  yield  material  upon  which  the  child 
builds  his  geographical  exi)erience. 

GENERAL  MAP  READING 

One  of  the  most  important  results  of  geography  teaching 
should  l:>e  an  increased  use  of  maps  and  an  appreciation  of  their 
value  as  source  material.  By  the  time  a  child  reaches  the  fifth 
grade  he  should  have  the  ability  to  read  from  an  ordinary  map 
direction,  distance,  and,  to  a  certain  extent,  surface  features. 


26 

Children  should  be  taught  to  tell  directions  on  the  earth's 
surface  before  any  map  is  presented  to  them.  A  north-south 
line  should  be  drawn  on  the  schoolroom  floor  and  staked  out  on 
the  sciiool  grounds  by  marking  the  shadow  of  some  vertical 
object  at  noon,  by  using  a  comi>ass,  or  by  using  a  watch  as  a 
comi)ass  as  explained  in  the  Boy  Scout  Manual.  The  pupils 
sliould  be  trained  in  telling  i>eople  how  to  go  to  different  places 
in  the  vicinity  by  naming  directions  in  which  one  should  travel 
to  reach  the  places.  They  should  gain  a  knowledge  of  distance 
by  finding  out  how  long  it  takes  them  to  walk  to  places  a  mile 
away  from  the  school.  Pupils  should  learn  the  distance  of 
certain  points  one- fourth  mile,  one-half  mile  and  one  mile  distant 
from  the  school  by  measuring  such  distances  with  their  bicycles. 

Children  understand  maps  better  if  they  make  simple  ones  for 
themselves.  The  simplest  forms  to  begin  with  are  floor-plans 
of  the  schoolroom,  or  sand  table  plans  of  the  school  grounds. 
At  first  no  other  attempt  at  scale  should  be  made  than  would  be 
made  in  a  drawing  lesson.  Later  a  simple  scale  may  be  used  if 
care  is  taken  not  to  outrun  the  children's  arithmetical  abilities. 

In  the  fourth  grade  the  teacher  may  conduct  excursions  of 
short  distances  in  each  of  the  four  cardinal  directions  and  let  the 
children  map  the  routes  followed.-  Here  relative  distance  may 
l)e  judged  by  pacing. 

In  this  work  the  teacher  should  not  overestimate  the  value 
of  the  finished  map  nor  forget  that  her  chief  concern  is  to  teach 
children  to  read  maps  that  others  have  made.  A  rough  sketch 
by  which  the  child  can  explain  to  others  how  to  reach  liis  home 
from  the  school  is  of  more  value  than  a  finished  map  drawn  to 
an  exact  scale  but  meaningless  to  the  child, 

KEADINO  OF  LOCAL  HAPS 

Each  teacher  should  make  a  map  of  the  district  in  which  the 
school  is  situated.  The  first  maps  may  be  crude  but  should  have 
on  them  a  north-south  line  and  a  scale  of  miles.  A  child  should 
be  taught  to  look  first  for  the  north-south  line  and  to  hold  his 
map  so  that  north  on  the  map  corresponds  with  that  direction  in 
the  schoolroom.  As  he  reads  on  this  map  the  direction  of  differ- 
ent places  from  the  school  he  may  be  asked  to  point  to  them. 
When  wall  maps  are  used  they  should,  if  possible,  be  placed  on 
the  north  wall  so  that  the  directions  may  correspond  as  closely 
with  reality  as  possible. 


27 

A  child  should  learn  early  that  meridians  and  parallels  are 
north-south  and  east-west  lines  commonly  placed  on  maps  to  tell 
directions  and  that  the  north  is  usually  at  the  top  and  the  east 
at  the  right  hand  of  a  wall  map  as  he  faces  it.  It  is  well 
occasionally  to  show  a  map  with  much  curved  parallels  or 
meridians,  or  one  where  north  is  not  represented  at  the  top,  so 
that  he  may  learn  how  directions  are  read  on  such  maps. 

EXERCISES  ON  LOCAL  MAPS 

1.  In  what  directions  and  on  what  streets  would  you  walk  tO' 
reach :  the  nearest  fire  engine  house,  your  own  home,  the  post- 
office,  etc. 

2.  Mark  on  a  strip  of  cardboard  a  scale  of  miles  similar  to 
the  one  at  the  bottom  of  your  map.  With  this  scale  find  places 
one  mile  from  your  home.  Find  the  distance  from  the  school  or 
from  your  home  of  places  mentioned  in  exercise  i. 

MAPS  AVAILABLE  FOE  HOME  GEOGEAPHT  WORK 

Large  scale  topographical  maps  of  the  State  may  be  obtained 
for  twenty-five  cents  from  the  New  Jersey  Department  of  Con- 
servation and  Development  at  Trenton.  These  maps  are  large 
enough  to  be  placed  on  the  wall  for  study.  Children  should  be 
encouraged  to  find  the  distance  and  direction  from  the  school  to 
nearby  towns.  The  brown  contour  lines  on  these  maps  will  not 
confuse  children  if  they  are  shown  how  well-known  hills  and 
valleys  and  steep  and  gentle  slopes  are  represented.  They  may 
be  given  problems  to  answer  from  the  map  such  as  to  find  roads 
that  avoid  hills,  roads  that  go  over  steep  slopes,  points  where  the 
best  views  may  be  obtained,  etc. 

THE    TANGIBLE     IN    HISTORY 

To  be  tangible  in  history  in  the  early  grades  a  fact  must  give 
life  to  the  child  \vho  is  studying.  It  must  have  a  somewhat 
immediate  practical  value.  For  example,  the  story  of  Paul 
Revere's  ride  may  furnish  a  basis  for  classroom  dramatization. 
Again,  stories  of  the  lives  of  the  heroes  studied  should  be  given 
from  the  child's  point  of  view.  Facts  must,  to  some  degree, 
point  the  way  toward  future  values. 

The  discredited  notion  presented  by  the  "Culture  Epoch 
Theory"   would   seek   to  drive   all   children   through  the   same 


28 

racial  experience.  Voung  children  need  no  mare  racial  exi>eri- 
ence  than  do  older  children.  What  they  do  need,  however,  is  a 
chance  to  utilize  their  individual  capacities  in  finding  something 
in  history  that  is  immediately  usable  to  them. 

Our  first  tash,  then,  is  to  proznde  stories  and  biographies  that 
are  iiiteresting  because  they  abound  in  experiences  that  children 
can  understand.  For  example,  the  ba\'hood  of  Washington  is 
the  part  of  his  life  that  is  of  value  to  young  boys.  If  this  thought 
is  kept  uppermost  in  grades  I  to  IV  history  will  not  tire  children. 
They  will  simply  be  experiencing  a  knowledge  of  how  people 
act,  and  to  the  degree  to  which  these  people  can  act  vigorously 
and  present  themsehes  as  living  men  and  women,  young  children 
can  interpret  them. 

THE  USABLE  IN  CIVICS 

To  make  civics  worth  while  in  grades  II  to  IV  the  teacher 
must  center  the  work  around  the  actions  of  the  children  in  the 
schoolroom,  on  the  playground  and  in  the  home.  Centering  the 
work  about  these  activities  will  force  the  child  to  see  that  he  is 
a  responsible  member  of  the  community  group  and  that  he  is 
taking  part  in  its  activities.  The  usable  in  civics  then  becomes 
the  actual  experience  of  children,  interpreted  with  immediate 
surroundings  in  view  and  weighed  in  terms  of  the  immediate, 
plus  what  other  people  have  done  under  similar  conditions. 

COURSE  OF  STUDY 
GRADE  11 

Time  allotment,  two  recitations  a  week. 

Familiar  objects  of  nature 
Changes  in  seasons 
Simple  phenomena  of  nature 
Nature  poems 

The  work  in  geography  in  grade  II  should  emphasize  the 
seasonal  changes;  the  familiar  objects  of  nature,  such  as  birds, 
bees,  flowers,  vegetables,  domestic  animals;  and  some  of  the 
phenomena  of  nature,  such  as  water,  snow,  ice,  sunshine  and 
wind.  The  pupils  of  this  grade  can  get  a  child's  concept  of 
nature  if  they  are  allowed  to  have  first-hand  experience  with 
interesting  objects  found  by  them  or  by  the  teacher. 


29 

In  putting  this  into  practice  the  teacher  may  approach  the 
subject  by  talking-  informally  with  her  pupils  about  a  flower 
or  insect  found  on  the  way  to  school.  In  following  up  such  a 
lesson  an  opportunity  is  afforded  for  making  a  collection  by  the 
pupils  of  the  class  or  the  school.  For  example,  there  are  splen- 
did opportunities,  in  both  the  city  and  the  country,  for  the 
hatching  of  tadpoles,  for  collections  of  cocoons,  old  bird's  nests, 
and  a  few  of  the  common  flowers.  This  concrete  work  in  ob- 
taining first-hand  experience  with  nature  gives  the  teacher  the 
best  possible  connection  for  vital  English  work.  Each  collection 
made,  each  excursion  taken,  each  specimen  studied,  should  be 
used  as  a  basis  for  oral  English  in  the  second  grade. 

All  these  things  furnish  excellent  sources  for  child  observa- 
tion, for  discussion  and  for  thought  work.  The  material  col- 
lected by  the  children  can  be  organized  by  the  teacher  in  the 
way  that  best  suits  her  immediate  purpose.  If  she  lives  in  the 
country  the  fields  and  woods  will  furnish  an  abundance  of 
material.  If  she  is  in  the  town  she  will  have  recourse  to  the 
parks  or  the  greenhouses.  She  is  to  hold  this  idea  in  mind — that 
her  chief  purpose  is  to  get  her  children  awakened  to  some  of  the 
interesting  things  of  nature  which  are  immediately  around  them. 

In  studying  the  great  changes  that  take  place  in  nature  during 
fall,  winter,  spring  and  summer  the  teacher  is  to  show  how 
they  affect  life  outside  and  inside  the  schoolroom.  For  example, 
October's  weather  could  be  taught  through  the  goldenrod,  the 
colored  leaf,  the  withered  grass;  the  winter  season  could  be 
taught  through  the  frosted  window-pane,  the  snow-storm  and 
snow  flurry,  the  slippery  street,  the  frozen  stream,  the  rough 
frozen  ground.  Spring  and  summer  could  he  handled  in  a 
similar  way,  so  that  at  all  times  the  pupils  would  make  their 
own  connection  between  some  of  the  earth  facts  immediately 
around  them  and  the  great  changes  which  are  going  on  within 
nature.  The  important  thing  to  remember  is  the  fact  that  the 
children  are  to  make  the  observations,  the  children  are  to  give 
the  interpretations. 

Second  grade  children  should  learn  a  few  poems  adapted  to 
the  different  seasons.  The  poems  should  be  used  in  the  nature 
work  as  well  as  for  the  opening  exercises  and  special  days. 
Most  good  supplementary  readers  contain  many  selections  which 
are  helpful  nature  study  material.     For  example,  simple  lessons 


30 

that  deal  with  the  snow-storm,  the  summer  clouds,  the  song  birds, 
the  farm  animals,  the  oj)en  country,  are  usable  for  the  nature 
study  lessons.  If  they  are  so  utilized  by  the  teacher  the  child 
will  find  a  keen  interest  in  nature. 

SUPPLEMENTARY   AND   REFERENCE   BOOKS   FOR   PUf>|LS   AND 

TEACHER 

GHADES  n  AND  III 

Andrews,  Jane.     Seven  Little  Sisters.     Ginn,  Boston 
Dutton,  M.  B.     World  at  Work  Series.    American  Book  Co.  N.  Y. 
Peary,  Josephine.     The  Snow  Baby.     Stokes,  N.  Y. 
Perkins,  L,  F.     The  Dutch  Twins.     Houghton,  Boston 
Perkins,  L.  F.     The  Japanese  Twins.     Houghton,  Boston 
Schwartz,  J.  A.     Five  Little  Strangers.    American  Book  Co.  N.  Y. 
Smith,  IVl.  E.  E.     Eskimo  Stories.     Rand  McNally,  Chicago 
Smith,  IVl.  E.  E.     Holland  Stories.     Rand  McNally,  Chicago 

GRADE  III 

Time  allotment,  three  recitations  a  week. 

Seasonal  changes 

Interesting  objects  of  nature 

Location   applied  to   immediate  environment 

Simple  map  making 

Weather  observations 

Experimentation   with   seed   germination   and   plant  growing 

Excursions 

Needs  for  food,  clothing  and  shelter 

Type  studies 

Poems 

In  grade  III  a  continuation  of  the  method  suggested  under 
grade  II  is  recommended.  In  this  grade  the  children  can  put 
more  meaning  into  the  seasonal  changes.  They  have  had  more 
illustrative  reading  material  on  the  topic.  They  are  able  also 
to  continue  the  study  of  the  plants  and  animals  around  them 
with  more  interest,  both  because  they  are  older  and  because 
their  other  school  work  has  given  them  more  usable  material. 
Third  year  pupils,  in  both  country  and  town,  should  be  able  to 
collect  specimens  which  will  form  a  basis  for  much  of  their 
discussion  in  geography  and  nature  work.  This  same  material 
should  also  serve  as  a  basis  for  subject  matter  in  simple  but 
wide-awake  oral  and  written  English. 


31 

The  idea  of  location  as  applied  to  the  child's  immediate  en- 
vironment is  an  added  topic  in  third  grade  assignment.  This 
work  may  begin  with  a  study  of  objects  in  the  schoolroom. 
The  points  of  the  compass,  how  to  locate  objects  in  the  room, 
how  to  show  location  on  the  board,  are  things  to  be  taught.  As 
a  second  step  the  pupils  should  study  their  school  building  with 
reference  to  its  distance  and  its  direction  from  their  home  and 
from  other  important  points  in  the  community. 

In  teaching  distance,  location  and  community  environment 
the  third  grade  teacher  should  make  provision  for  some  definite 
measuring  and  for  some  simple  map  and  floor-plan  making. 
Ideas  of  distance  can  be  gained  by  measuring  length  and  breadth 
of  schoolroom,  school  building,  school  garden  and  school  yard. 
Maps  of  these  rooms,  houses  and  yards  should  be  drawn.  Work 
of  this  kind  should  be  given  in  relation  to  the  subject  matter 
throughout  the  term  and  taught  in  connection  with  arithmetic. 

A  discussion  of  the  questions  regarding  directions  and  loca- 
tion which  are  raised  by  measuring  and  by  map  making  offers 
a  still  better  opportunity  for  pupils  to  reinforce  their  former 
ideas  of  nature,  for  now  they  can  begin  to  locate  the  trees,  the 
flowers,  the  plants  that  they  have  been  studying.  They  can 
begin  to  find  the  home  of  the  butterfly,  the  frog,  or  the  chip- 
munk in  terms  of  directions  and  location  on  the  maps  they  have 
made. 

SUGGESTIONS 

Model  village  on  sand-table,  including  houses,  garages,  stores, 
school,  fire  department,  police  department,  postoffice.  municipal 
buildings,  railroad  station,  and  any  local  industry,  such  as  fac- 
tory, shipbuilding,  milling,  mining,  etc. 

The  third  grade  teacher  can  find  opportunity  for  experiment- 
ing wath  facts  concerning  weather  observations,  moisture  and 
soil  fertility.  In  making  weather  observations  the  members  of 
the  class  should  note  certain  definite  things  such  as  temperature, 
direction  of  winds,  clouds,  degrees  of  dampness  before  and  after 
rain.  The  teacher  could  perform  simple  experiments  such  as 
showing  the  way  in  which  moisture  collects  on  grass,  leaves, 
w-indow-panes.  If  the  class  has  a  vegetable  or  flower  garden 
there  is  excellent  opportunity  to  show  how  rich  soil  makes  for 
rapid  growth  and  for  vigor  and  health  of  plants.  If  the  school 
has  no  garden  window  Ixjxes  can  l>e  used,  or  corn,  beans,  wheat 
or  rye  can  be  planted  in  the  several  small  cups. 


32 

This  work  can  be  reinforced  by  a  trip  to  the  field,  where 
pupils  can  find  rocks,  pebbles,  sand,  clay  and  loam.  In  all 
excursions  the  teacher  should  have  a  definite  purpose.  She 
should  make  a  preliminary  visit  and  find  out  the  best  ways  of 
accomplishing  lier  purix)se.  Such  work  establishes  a  foundation 
for  useful  observation  and  at  the  same  time  shows  some  of  the 
changes  that  take  place  in  making  soils  productive. 

SUGGESir^TE  EXPEBIMENTS 

Experiment  1.  Place  the  same  amount  of  water  in  two  dishes 
of  the  same  size  and  shape,  in  different  parts  of  the  room,  one 
where  it  is  warm  and  the  other  where  it  is  cool.  Watch  the 
change.  Evaporation  from  both,  but  more  from  one  than  from 
the  other.  It  disappears  in  a  form  too  fine  to  be  seen.  Call  it 
vapor.     Observe  same  in  pools,  sponges,  clothes  on  the  line,  etc. 

Experiment  2.  Place  a  small  pan  of  water  over  an  alcohol 
lamp.  Observe  that  a  cloud  is  soon  seen  above  the  water.  Hold 
a  cold  plate  in  the  cloud;  drops  form.  Heat  the  plate  and 
observe  that  the  water  disappears. 

Observe  clouds  rising  from  walks,  roof,  etc.,  on  a  warm  day 
after  a  shower;  steam  ascending  from  the  tea-kettle;  moisture 
on  the  windows ;   frost  on  a  cold  day. 

Experiment  3.  Place  two  glasses  in  the  room,  one  filled  with 
ice  water  and  the  other  with  tepid  water.  Observe  on  which 
the  moisture  collects.     Fonnation  of  dew. 

Why  does  frost  form  on  a  window? 

Experiment  4.  Set  a  tin  cup  of  water  out  of  doors  on  a  very 
cold  day.  Watch  the  ice  crystals  shoot  across.  Water  freezes 
first  at  the  top;  if  there  is  wind,  the  crystals  become  broken  and 
form  rough  ice.  What  happens  to  a  glass  or  pitcher  if  water 
is  allowed  to  freeze  in  it? 

Experiment  5.  Place  a  piece  of  ice  out  of  doors  on  the  north 
side  of  the  house  on  a  cold  day.  Observe  evaporation.  Little 
heat,  slow  evaporation;    great  heat,  rapid  evaporation. 

Measure  rainfall  and  snowfall.  Place  a  tin  pan  in  an  open 
space  and  measure  depth  of  rainfall.  Use  the  same  pan  after  a 
heavy  snowfall,  and  press  it  squarely  down  so  as  to  take  up  the 
depth  of  snowfall,  then  melt  it  and  compare  with  rainfall. 

These  experiments  should  help  the  child  account  for  dew, 
frost,  ice,  clouds,  fogs. 


33 

Impress:  sun  gives  heat;  heat  causes  water  to  change  to 
vapor;  vapor  rises,  cools  and  forms  clouds;  clouds  give  rain  if 
met  by  cooler  wind;  snow,  if  met  by  a  very  cold  wind;  hail,  if 
rain  begins  to  fall  and  passes  through  very  cold  winds. 

Lessons  upon  forms  of  water  should  be  given  as  opportunity 
occurs  for  observation.  Experiments  upon  vapor  should  precede 
and  be  well  understood. 

In  the  third  grade  opportunity  should  be  offered  for  the  child 
to  appreciate  his  own  need  for  food,  clothing  and  shelter. 
Through  his  study  of  the  needs  of  plants  and  animals  he  is 
enabled  to  form  some  judgment  respecting  his  own  needs.  With 
a  definite  project,  for  example,  centering  around  the  cowboy,  the 
Indian,  the  Eskimo,  the  story  of  Robinson  Crusoe,  or  life  in  a 
boys'  camp,  there  is  opportunity  to  make  this  geographical  ma- 
terial real  to  the  child  of  this  grade.  The  cowboy,  for  example, 
can  be  made  a  real  person  to  the  pupils.  He  needs  food,  clothing 
and  shelter,  and  works  in  order  that  he  may  satisfy  these  needs. 
In  doing  this  work  he  is  an  interesting  person  to  study.  He 
takes  care  of  the  animals  placed  in  his  charge.  The  animals  fur- 
nish food  and  clothing  for  boys  and  girls  in  both  country  and 
town.  Other  occupations  are  also  brought  in  through  a  study  of 
the  cowboy.  The  child  who  is  clinching  his  geography  informa- 
tion through  a  study  of  such  definite  projects  is  gaining  some 
conception  of  the  whole  field  of  geography. 

Robinson  Crusoe  is  an  account  of  the  adventures  of  one  who 
is  forced  to  live  for  many  years  wholly  removed  from  the  society 
of  others  and  apart  from  the  comforts  and  conveniences  of 
civilization,  and  who  finally,  after  years  of  successful  single- 
handed  struggle  with  nature,  returns  to  his  home. 

The  story  teaches,  indirectly,  that  civilization  is  the  result  of 
the  effort  which  man  has  put  forth  in  advancing  evolution,  his 
progress  being  marked  by  the  steps  from  a  natural  to  a  more  or 
less  developed  state. 

The  story  of  Robinson  Crusoe  epitomizes,  in  a  way,  the  history 
of  the  struggle  of  the  race  as  a  whole.  Crusoe  overcomes  slowly, 
but  persistently,  the  forces  of  nature.  He  uses  the  raw  materials 
found  about  him  to  promote  his  well-being.  By  thought  and 
undiscouraged  effort  he  provides  himself  with  food,  clothing, 
shelter,  all  of  which  are  necessary  to  life  and  which  aid  moral 
and    spiritual    development.      His    successive    occupations    may 

3  GEOG 


34 

enable  the  child  to  appreciate  somewhat  the  development  ot 
civilization.  Robinson  Crusoe  is  house  builder,  carpenter,  farmer, 
stock-raiser,  doctor,  basket-maker,  hatter,  miller,  baker,  boat- 
builder,  tailor  and  teacher.  It  is  obvious  why  he  is  not  a  mer- 
chant. The  uselessness  of  money  or  gold  to  one  in  his  circum- 
stances should  be  pointed  out. 

The  relation  of  Robinson  Crusoe  and  Friday  illustrate  man's 
dependence  upon  man,  which  results  in  the  organization  of 
society,  and  which  shows  the  need  of  language  as  a  means  of 
communication. 

Moreover,  it  is  a  story  of  moral  heroism,  a  story  of  one  who 
was  rarely  discouraged  or  disheartened  under  very  trying  or 
adverse  circumstances.  While  it  is  true  that  children  of  this 
grade  cannot  appreciate,  as  adults  can,  the  value  of  unfailing 
cheerfulness,  of  self-reliance,  of  persistence  and  bravery,  yet 
these  qualities  in  Robinson  Crusoe  should  not  be  overlooked  by 
the  teacher. 

The  story  should  be  told  or  read  to  pupils  with  certain  omis- 
sions, such  as  references  to  the  savage  practices  of  cannibals. 
In  the  beginning  of  the  story  the  home  and  the  kindness  of  the 
parents  should  be  made  vivid  in  order  that  the  contrast  later  may 
be  more  effective.  His  life  upon  the  island,  however,  should 
receive  most  attention. 

Some  of  the  story  should  be  reproduced  orally  in  the  children's 
best  English.  Occasionally  there  should  be  a  short  written  exer- 
cise upon  an  assigned  topic. 

Pupils  should  be  encouraged  to  make,  at  home  or  in  scho(3l, 
various  utensils  or  tools  used  by  Robinson  Crusoe,  as  the  anchor, 
raft,  ladder,  chair,  table,  spade,  all  of  which  show  incidentally 
man's  dependence  u[X>n  man. 

Compare  his  home  with  ours.  Show  how  he  built  his  house ; 
how  he  lighted  it. 

One  such  project  is  suggested  as  a  minimum.  If  pupils  study 
in  detail  how  the  cowboy  does  his  work,  or  how  the  Indian  needs 
food,  clothing  and  shelter,  that  is  the  right  kind  of  geography 
for  this  grade.  Four  months  spent  upon  a  single  project  sJwurs 
better  "pedagogy"  than  four  projects  per  month. 

The  suggestions  concerning  the  use  in  the  second  grade  of 
certain  kinds  of  poems  and  prose  material  are  even  more  appli- 
cable to  third  grade  work.  Stories  of  some  length,  which  show 
the  experience  of  children  in  different  lands,  can  also  be  utilized. 


35 

Such  stories  should  be  selected,  not  to  follow  out  the  Culture 
Epoch  Theory,  but  simply  to  give  opportunities  for  varied 
journeys  and  geography  experiences  for  eight  year  old  children. 
In  the  work  outlined  there  is  neither  time  nor  place  for 
"deiinition  geography."  Pupils  and  teachers  are  observing, 
sensing  and  experiencing  real  facts  in  nature  which  will  not  only 
serve  to  satisfy  their  present  desire  for  activity,  but  will  furnish 
the  necessary  material  for  arriving  at  useful  generalizations  in 
the  higher  grades  and  for  discovering  the  more  imix)rtant  under- 
lying principles  of  geography. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  AND  REFERENCE  BOOKS  FOR  PUPILS 
AND  TEACHER 

GRADES  HI  AND  IV 

Baldwin,  James.     Old  Stories  of  the  East.     American  Book  Co.  N.  Y. 
Burgess,  T.  W,     Mother  Westwind's  Children.     Little,  Brown,  Boston 
Carpenter,  F.  G.     Around  the  world  with  Children.     American  Book  Co. 

N.  Y. 
Carroll,  C.  F.     Around  the  World  Series.     Silver  Burdette,  N.  Y. 
Chance,  L.  M.    Little  folks  of  Many  Lands.    Ginn,  Boston 
Dutton,  M.  B.     In  Field  and  Pasture.     American  Book  Co.  N.  Y. 
George,  M.  M.     Little  Journey  Series.     Flanagan,  Chicago. 

See  also  list  at  end  of  Grade  II 

GRADE  IV 

Time  allotment,   four  recitations  a  week.     Elementarv  text- 
books in  hands  of  pupils. 

Objects  of  nature 

Weather  records 

Excursions 

Extended  interpretation  of  globe 

World  geography,  emphasizing  the  interrelation  of  peoples,  the  needs 
of  different  peoples,  chief  occupations,  influences  affecting  mankind 
(minimum  requirement — two  projects  carried  out  in  some  detail) 

Type  study  on  occupation,  industries,  products 

APPARATTTS  NEEDED  BY  TEACHER 

Map  of  Xew  Jersey  and  local  county 
Map  of  United  States 
Map  of  North  America 
Map  of  World 
Globe,  1 2-inch 


36 

Sand-table  (made  by  carpenter  or  manual  training  pupils) 
Supplementary  geographical  readers 

From  a  study  of  his  immediate  environment  the  pupil's  horizon 
broadens  until  it  includes  the  school  district,  the  county,  the  state 
and  finally  the  nation  and  the  world. 

The  children  of  the  fourth  grade  should  continue  at  first  hand 
their  study  of  nature.  Much  of  their  work,  then,  in  the  fourth 
grade  ought  to  be  a  continuation  of  that  suggested  for  the  third 
year.  Here  they  can  study  objects  of  nature  around  them  in  a 
more  detailed  way.  They  can  make  closer  observations,  collect 
more  specimens,  and  talk  over  their  excursions  in  a  more  ade- 
quate way  than  in  the  previous  grade. 

Weather  records  of  the  different  months  may  be  kept  by  differ- 
ent groups  of  pupils.  The  teacher  and  the  class  should  work 
out  a  plan  calling  for  certain  things  to  be  noted.  For  example, 
a  chart  could  be  made  which  would  show  number  of  cloudy  days, 
number  of  sunny  days,  highest  temperature,  lowest  temperature, 
time  of  sunrise  (earliest  and  latest),  time  of  sunset  (earliest 
and  latest),  time  of  new  moon,  time  of  full  moon,  kinds  of  birds 
seen,  varieties  of  wild  flowers  gathered. 

Excursions  should  be  made  to  fields  and  woods.  Definite  pur- 
poses to  be  accomplished  must  be  in  the  mind  of  the  teacher 
before  the  excursions  are  undertaken.  She  should  visit  the 
places  beforehand  and  find  the  answers  to  the  questions  that  she 
will  raise.  If  an  industry  such  as  a  truck  farm  or  a  manufac- 
turing plant  is  examined,  it  should  be  studied  through  the  number 
of  people  employed,  the  raw  materials  used,  the  products  made, 
the  help  the  industry  gives  to  the  community.  To  make  this 
work  valuable  the  teacher  should  plan  for  several  lessons.  The 
ideas  gained  in  a  study  of  local  geography  furnish  the  basis  for 
world  geography.  Therefore  a  constant  connection  must  be 
made  between  the  local  environment  and  the  needs  of  the  world 
at  large.  For  example,  the  pupils  can  see  that  a  local  manu- 
facturing plant  depends  upon  the  Pittsburg  coal  region  for  its 
coal,  upon  New  Jersey  clay  beds  for  its  clay,  and  upon  steam- 
ships and  railroads  for  transportation. 

In  studying  the  shape  of  the  earth  let  the  approach  be  through 
imaginary  journeys  made  by  children  in  search  of  necessary 
articles  of  food ;  through  journeys  made  by  people  who  have 
traveled  around  the  world,  e.  g.,  by  tracing  on  the  globe  the 


-h7 

route  traversed  by  Magellan ;  or  through  class  construction  work 
wherein  the  rotundity  of  the  earth  is  emphasized.  This  could 
be  followed  by  further  use  of  the  globe.  Whatever  devices  the 
teacher  uses  she  succeeds  only  when  she  and  her  pupils  have 
imagined  the  earth  as  a  ball,  turning  in  space.  Attempts  at 
explaining  how  the  ball  hangs  in  space  are  not  as  successful  as 
attempts  at  objective  illustration  and  attempts  at  image  making. 
If  the  teacher  suspends  a  12-inch  globe  before  her  pupils,  and 
then  suggests  that  they  close  their  eyes  and  imagine  it  is  the 
earth  hanging  in  space,  she  has  begun  aright.  When  we  realize 
that  children  can  learn  to  imagine  just  as  they  learn  to  think 
we  shall  be  better  able  to  furnish  them  with  material  for  growth 
in  imagination,  and  at  the  same  time  we  shall  be  more  patient 
in  allowing  time  for  this  growth.  Such  presentation  as  has  been 
suggested  makes  a  splendid  introduction  to  the  study  of  day  and 
night,  causes  of  seasons,  relation  of  moon  to  earth,  relation  of 
sun  to  earth. 

With  this  as  a  beginning,  the  content  of  subject  matter  for 
the  fourth  grade  should  be  broadened  so  that  the  pupils  will 
study  more  than  the  geography  of  their  immediate  locality.  The 
work  should  progress  from  facts  that  are  personal  and  familiar 
to  the  children  to  those  which  are  less  obvious  and  more  im- 
personal. In  this  way,  with  a  textbook  which  has  been  written 
for  fourth  grade  children,  the  study  of  world  geography  should 
be  continued  through  the  study  of  home  geography.  Let  the 
study  of  the  district,  the  county,  the  state,  the  nation,  the  world, 
begin  with  something  with  which  the  child  is  already  familiar. 
The  need  for  good  roads,  for  schooling,  for  protection,  for 
government,  for  food,  clothing,  shelter  and  fuel  furnishes  the 
live  approach  to  a  study  of  world  geography.  In  taking  up  any 
one  of  the  following  necessities — flour,  meat,  butter,  cotton, 
wool,  silk,  fuels,  lumber,  bricks,  it  should  be  traced  to  its  source, 
and  a  study  made  of  the  simpler  elements  of  its  production,  the 
means  and  route  by  which  it  is  brought  to  the  community,  and 
the  method  of  distribution.  Such  a  study  makes  direct  applica- 
tions of  the  chief  occupations  of  man.  The  teacher  should  see 
to  it  that  the  products  selected  in  the  work  as  a  whole  introduce 
the  children  to  the  various  continents  and  the  several  heat  belts, 
for  a  summary  of  the  work  should  include  a  knowledge  of  the 
distribution  of  the  heat  belts  as  a  preparation  for  the  continental 


38 

work  of  the  higher  grades.  However,  the  emphasis  in  this  grade 
is  not  to  be  on  the  continents  of  the  world  but  on  the  kind  of 
people  who  are  in  the  world,  their  needs,  their  chief  occupations, 
their  interrelationship.  In  extent  this  would  be  called  world 
geography  because  it  would  deal  with  the  most  important  ele- 
ments that  affect  mankind.  In  content  it  would  hold  to  the  facts 
of  the  world  that  have  meaning  to  children  of  nine  and  ten 
years  of  age. 

Fourth  grade  pupils  are  citizens  of  a  prosperous  state.  Many 
of  the  other  states  in  the  union  help  to  make  their  state  pros- 
perous. Many  of  the  other  countries  produce  articles  that  are 
used  here  in  New  Jersey.  Many  of  the  articles  made  in  New 
Jersey  are  needed  in  other  parts  of  the  world.  These  fourth 
grade  children  have  needs  to  be  satisfied,  the  study  of  which  will 
give  them  the  geography  that  they  can  iise.  For  example,  all 
children  need  light  weight  clothes  in  summer  and  heavier  weight 
clothes  in  winter.  In  studying  this  need  as  a  problem  of  world- 
wide geography,  the  pupils  should  find  three  or  four  important 
places  in  the  United  States  or  in  foreign  countries  which  furnish 
the  raw  materials  for  clothing.  In  a  very  elementary  way  these 
pupils  should  study  how  the  goods  were  transported  from  the 
place  of  manufacture  to  the  store,  how  the  raw  material  was 
brought  to  the  factory,  how  the  raw  material  ^vas  produced. 
Incidentally  they  have  studied  in  a  very  elementary  way,  loca- 
tion, climate,  occupation,  ways  of  living,  commerce  and  indus- 
tries of  given  countries.  By  selecting  a  few  of  the  articles  which 
are  among  their  needs,  these  children  may  make  intelligent 
excursions  into  the  field  of  geography,  and  if  the  work  is  handled 
rightly  tliey  will  learn  enough  world  geography  for  fourth  grade 
children. 

As  to  method  of  teaching,  these  children  would  have  con- 
tinual opportunities  for  observation  and  experimentation  with 
some  facts  of  geography  which  directly  concern  their  immediate 
lives  or  the  life  in  the  community,  so  presented  that  they  would 
constantly  be  forced  to  use  intelligent  imagination  in  each  day's 
lesson.  The  teaching  should  be  so  controlled  that  their  ex- 
panding sense  impressions  will  form  a  basis  for  the  logical 
thinking  which  they  are  capable  of  doing  at  this  stage  of  their 
development. 

The  work  of  this  grade,  as  well  as  that  of  the  third,  neces- 
sitates the  use  of  the  sand  table,  and  of  plasticine,  or  clay,  for 


39 

modeWng.  It  also  necessitates  a  constant  use  of  the  globe,  of 
j>aper  and  cardboard  constructions,  and  of  some  rough  map 
drawing,  so  that  the  ideas  of  the  children  may  be  made  vivid  and 
clear.  It  necessitates  a  knowledge  of  directions  and  important 
locations.  Since  the  textbook  is  in  the  hands  of  the  children, 
it  must  be  used  as  a  source  of  information.  It  must  also  be 
used  as  a  means  by  which  the  teacher  shows  the  pupils  from 
day  to  day  how  to  get  meaning  fromi  its  pictures,  and  how  to 
interpret  pages  of  geography  material.  The  teacher  could  use 
various  devices  in  carrying  out  the  work  indicated.  She  could, 
for  example,  take  the  "journey  method,"  and  show  how  the  need 
of  clothing  changes  as  man  shifts  his  place  of  living.  She  could 
take  the  same  journey  method  and  show  how  hardships  increased 
as  man  traveled  from  a  well-developed  country  to  one  more  and 
more  rough  and  rugged. 

Such  procedure  makes  it  difficult  to  itsc  mere  fact  questions 
and  answers  in  fourth  grade  geography,  but  easy  to  connect  and 
use  meaningful  facts.  The  poorest  kind  of  geography  teaching 
in  these  lozver  grades  is  the  old  type  of  ''fact  and  definiiion 
geography."  The  best  kind  of  geography  teaching  is  that  which 
causes  the  child  to  observe,  to  handle,  to  sense  geography  ma- 
terials, and  to  utilize  his  experiences  in  such  a  zvay  that  he  be- 
comes increasingly  interested  in  the  zvorld  about  him.  This 
paves  the  way  through  immediate  interests  of  the  child  for  an 
intelligent  study  of  the  political  aspect  of  geography  which  fol- 
lows in  the  succeeding  grades. 

TYPE  STXTDT 

Agriculture  is  suggested  for  study  as  a  type  of  fundamental 
ocaipation.  Fourth  grade  children  can  understand  much  about 
this  occupation  if  they  trace  back  to  the  soil  some  of  the  simple 
articles  which  they  use  daily.  For  example,  bread  is  a  food 
necessity.  The  problem  is  to  find  what  occupations  have  helped 
in  preparing  it  for  the  table.  In  a  class  composed  of  country 
children  the  approach  would  be  through  the  grain  growing  which 
would  include  preparation  of  ground,  sowing  of  seed  and  germi- 
nation. Plants  require  heat,  light  and  moisture.  In  this  connec- 
tion the  pupils  should  make  a  brief  study  of  soils  suitable  for 
wheat  growing,  and  a  study  of  amount  of  moisture,  of  tempera- 
ture, of  time  of  ripening,  harv-esting  and  threshing.  In  takings 
up  the  marketing  of  the  wheat  product,  these  pupils  should  have 


40 

first-hand  experience  as  to  cost,  price  of  wheat,  and  purposes  to 
which  elevators  are  put.  If  a  flour  mill  is  in  the  vicinity  a  trip 
should  be  made  to  it  so  that  the  children  may  understand  some- 
thing of  the  way  in  which  the  hull  of  the  wheat  is  separated  from 
the  heart,  and  may  see  what  part  becomes  bran  and  what  flour. 

Transportation  and  commerce  become  centers  of  study  when 
the  children  are  finding  out  how  the  flour  reached  the  baker. 
The  factors  in  this  transportation  will  evidently  be  the  wagon 
or  truck,  and  the  railroad,  steamboat  or  barge.  If  the  flour 
returns  direct  to  the  farmer  the  factors  will  be  his  team  or  truck, 
and  a  dirt,  gravel  or  macadam  road. 

When  the  flour  has  reached  the  baker,  the  problem  becomes 
one  of  finding  out  some  of  the  ways  of  bread  making.  A  visit 
to  the  bakery,  a  trip  to  a  neighboring  kitchen,  or  a  recitation  in 
the  school  kitchen  offers  an  opportunity  to  understand  the  cost 
of  the  change  into  bread.  There  is  still  left  the  question  of 
delivery  to  the  home. 

If  the  class  is  composed  of  town  or  city  children  the  approach 
should  be  made  through  the  loaf  of  bread  on  the  table  and  lead  i 
back  to  the  marketing  and  growing  of  the  wheat. 

The  pupils  will  see  how  the  industries  are  related,  and  why 
it  will  pay  them  to  understand  the  occupation  in  which  so  many 
people  are  engaged. 

In  carrying  out  such  a  plan  of  study  only  the  important  related 
occupations  can  be  stressed.  If  these  related  occupations  are 
really  studied  in  connection  with  the  problem  to  be  solved  great 
interest  can  be  aroused.  As  a  minimum  requirement  for  fourth 
year  work  each  class  should  cover  in  detail,  as  illustrated  in  the 
work  upon  the  study  of  bread  as  a  food  necessity,  any  two  of 
the  following  topics :    corn,  wool  or  cotton,  meat,  coal,  lumber. 

If  a  few  such  projects  are  carried  out  carefully  each  one  will 
furnish  live  material  for  several  weeks'  work.  The  result  will 
be  a  fund  of  useful  information  about  important  subjects,  a 
knowledge  of  world  geography  sufficient  for  fourth  grade  chil- 
dren, and  an  awakened  interest  in  the  study  of  methods  of 
selecting  and  organizing  geography  material. 

ADDITIONAL  PROBLEMS 

The  following  additional  problems  are  suggested  as  material 
from  which  the  teacher  who  has  an  especially  strong  class  may 


41 

select.    Each  project  illustrates  how  subject  matter  in  the  school- 
room is  related  to  life  outside. 

Preparation  of  peaches  for  market 

Preparation  of  cranberries  for  market 

Preparation  of  apples  for  market 

Marketing  of  milk 

Preservation  of  meat,  vegetables,  fruits 

Manufacture  of  clothing 

Materials  used  for  shelter 


SUPPLEMENTARY  AND  REFERENCE  BOOKS  FOR  PUPILS 
AND  TEACHER 

6BADE  rV 

Allen,  N.  B.     Industrial  Studies:    United  States.     Ginn,  Boston 
Carpenter,  F.  G.    Industrial  Readers.     (How  the  World  is  Fed.    How  the 

World  is  Clothed.    How  the  World  is  Housed.)     American  Book  Co. 

N.  Y. 
Carpenter,  F.  G.     North  America.    American  Book  Co.  N.  Y. 
Chamberlain,  J.  F.     How  we  are  Clothed.     Macmillan,  N.  Y. 
Chamberlain,  J.  F.     How  we  are  Fed.     Macmillan,  N.  Y. 
Chamberlain,  J.  F.     How  we  are  Sheltered.     Macmillan,  N.  Y. 
Chamberlain,  J.  F.     How  we  Travel.     Macmillan,  N.  Y. 
Chance,  L.  M.     Little  Folks  of  Many  Lands.     Ginn,  Boston 
Jackman,  W.  S.     Field  Work  in  Nature  Study.     Flanagan,  Chicago 
Keller,   A.   G.  &   Bishop,   A.    L.     Commercial   and   Industrial   Geography. 

Ginn,  Boston 
Mansfield,  B,  L.     Our  Little  Dutch  Cousins.     L.  C.  Page,  Boston 
Shillig,    E.   E.     The   Four  Wonders    (Cotton,   Wool,   Linen,   Silk).     Rand 

McNally,  Chicago 
Wade,  M.  H.     Our  Little  Brown  Cousins.     L.  C.  Page,  Boston 


See  also  lists  at  end  of  Grades  II  and  III 


1 


GRADES  V  TO  VII 
SUGGESTIVE  TIME  ALLOTMENT 

GRADE  y 

North  America  with  Special  Reference  to  United  States  and 

New  Jersey 

North  America — 38  weeks 

General  surface  features,  climatic  conditions,   people,  occupations 

and  products  of  continent — 2  weeks 
Regions  of  the  United  States — 3  weeks 
Groups  of  states — 2C  weeks 
Possessions  of  United  States — 3  weeks 
Review  of  New  Jersey — 4  weeks 

GRADE  VI 

Europe,  Asia,  Africa  and  Australia 

EJiirope — 19  weeks 

The  continent  as  a  whole — 2  weeks 

Kinds  of  people  and  relation  to  us — 3  days 
Location,  size,  relief,  drainage,  climate — 2  days 
Resources — agricultural,     mining,     fishing,     manufacturing — 
1  week 

Great  Britain — 5  weeks 

Relation   of   people   to   us — history,   government,   trade,   lan- 
guage, literature — 1  week 
Location,  size,  relief,  drainage,  climate — 3  days 
Resources  of  country  and  occupations  of  the  people — 2  weeks 
Colonies  and  Ireland — 1  week 
Cities — 2  days 

Germany — 2  weeks 

France — 2  weeks 

Austria  Hungarj' — 1  week 

Belgium  and  Holland — 1  week 

Russia — 2  weeks 

Norway.  Sweden  and  Denmark — 1  week 

Spain  and  Portugal — 2  days 

Italy — 1  week 

Switzerland — 3  days 

Greece — 3  days 

Balkan  States — 2  days 
Asia — 8  weeks 

Continent  study — 1  week 

Turkish  Empire — 3  days 

Japanese  Empire — 2  weeks 


(43) 


44 

China — 1  week 

Indian  Empire  and  Ceylon — 1  week 

Asiatic  Russia — 1  week 

Indo  China  and  Malay  Peninsula — 2  days 

Arabia,  Persia,  Afghanistan — 3  days 

Islands — 2  days 
Africa — 4  weeks 

Australia  and  New  Zealand — 3  weeks 
Review  of  Eastern  hemisphere  with  special  reference  to  Europe — 4  weeks 

GRADE  vn 
South  America,  Mexico,  Central  America,  Canada,   Etc. 

South  America — 10  weeks 

Continent  study — 2  weeks 

Brazil — 2  weeks 

Argentina — 2  weeks 

Chile — 2  weeks 

Uruf^uay  and  Paraguay — 2  days 

Venezuela  and  Guianas — 3  days 

Other  countries — 1  week 
Mexico  and  Central  America — 3  weeks 

Canada,  Nova  Scotia,  New  Brunswick  and  Newfoundland — 4  weeks 
Principles  of  geography — 2  weeks 
World  review — 19  weeks 


GRADE  V 

NORTH    AMERICA    WITH    SPECIAL   STRESS    UPON   UNITED 
STATES    AND    NEW   JERSEY 

SUGGESTED  TIME   ALLOTMENT 

First  Half 

General    surface   features,   climatic   conditions,    people,    occupations   and 

products — 2  weeks 
Regions  of  United  States — 3  weeks 
New  England,  Middle  Atlantic  and  Central  states — 14  weeks 

Second  Half 

Southern  and  Western  states — 12  weeks 
Possessions  of  United  States — 3  weeks 

Review  of  Middle  Atlantic  states  with  special  reference  to  New  Jersey 
— 4  weeks 

TEACHING  IIIATEB.IALS  AND  AFFAB.ATTJS  KEEDED 

Globe 

Maps  of  world,  North  America,  United  States,  New  Jersey,  local 

county,  Europe.  South  America 
Elementary  g-eography  texts 
Geographical  readers 
Blackboard  maps  of  United  States  and  New  Jersey 

The  children  of  this  grade  have  reached  such  a  stage  in  their 
development  that  they  are  ready  to  use  a  textbook  in  geography 
as  a  tool  of  knowledge.  The  textbook,  then,  ought  to  be  one 
of  the  sources  from  which  they  prepare  their  work.  //  it  is  i(sed 
in  this  way  they  zvill  not  read  it  page  by  page  but  ivill  use  topic 
headings,  indices,  tables  of  contents  or  suggested  outlines,  as 
guides  to  tell  them  zuhere  they  can  find  information  upon  the 
problems  on  zvhich  they  are  at  ivork. 

For  example,  in  such  a  problem  as,  "\\^hy  is  New  Jersey  the 
manufacturer  of  clay  products?"  the  pupils  will  find  the  page  or 
pages  that  tell  of  New  Jersey  industries.  They  will  refer  to  maps 
to  note  location  of  clay  beds,  and  manufactories  using  clay. 
They  will  also  need  to  look  up  the  imports  and  exports  of  New 
Jersey  to  see  what  effect  the  clay  industry  has  upon  trade. 
Special  articles  in  newspapers  and  magazines  which  deal  with 

Us) 


46 

cla\-  and  clay  products  will  l>e  a  i>art  of  the  regular  work.  A 
small  exhibit  .>f  articles  manufactured  from  clay  may  furnish 
a  basis  for  part  of  the  study. 

The  teacher  will  use  the  geography  material,  both  that  within 
the  book  and  that  to  be  found  in  newspai>er,  magazine,  field,  hill, 
stream  and  school  yard,  as  material  to  be  studied  and  talked 
about,  rather  than  as  so  much  "mass  material"  to  be  gotten  over. 
If  the  pupils  have  begun  the  habit  of  study  by  the  time  they  start 
this  work,  now  is  the  real  chance  to  increase  that  habit  of  study. 

Making  teaching  material.  In  order  that  teaching  may  carry 
over  with  the  least  waste  of  time  and  effort,  it  is  recommended 
wherever  practicable  that  pupils  and  teacher  construct  very  much 
illustrative  material  and  many  devices,  collect  informational  data, 
and  keep  all  this  in  good  condition  for  future  use. 

In  studying  how  corn  is  raised  and  some  of  the  uses  to  which 
it  is  put,  pupils  and  teacher  should  collect  samples  of  ears  o* 
corn,  grains  of  corn,  stalk,  blades  and  simple  corn  products  such 
as  starch,  hominy,  meal,  cornflakes.  These  samples  of  com  and 
corn  products  should  be  kept  for  several  weeks.  Some  could  be 
kept  for  a  year  or  more. 

Pictures  showing  corn  cultivation,  facilities  for  transportation, 
processes  of  manufacturing  corn  products,  could  be  collected  and 
mounted.  These  mounted  pictures  should  be  cataloged  by  the 
children  and  filed  in  cases  made  by  the  boys.  During  this  study, 
articles  on  corn  culture,  corn  products,  and  the  principal  uses  of 
corn  could  be  collected  from  papers  and  magazines.  These 
articles  should  be  mounted  on  cardboard  and  cataloged  under 
appropriate  headings.  All  this  material  should  be  a  regular  part 
of  schoolroom  equipment,  and  should  be  kept  from  year  to  year. 

If  pupils  are  interested  in  the  Panama  Canal,  as  to  why  it  was 
built,  how  it  was  built,  and  the  returns  that  it  is  bringing  us,  a 
similar  plan  could  be  followed,  the  value  of  which  is  quite  appar- 
ent. Articles  that  were  written  at  the  time  of  the  treaty  with 
Colombia,  articles  and  pictures  showing  the  canal  in  process  of 
construction,  and  articles  and  pictures  portraying  trade  advan- 
tages could  be  collected,  mounted  and  cataloged  for  regular  class- 
room work.  This  material  should  be  in  such  form  that  pupils 
who  are  studying  a  given  project  could  find  interesting  and  valu- 
able help.  If  such  devices  were  followed,  teachers  would  soon 
have  certain  permanent  collections  that  would  be  regular  "teach- 


47 

ing  tools."  They  would  soon  become  as  familiar  with  them  and 
their  use  as  is  a  carpenter  with  his  necessary  equipment. 

In  all  grammar  grades  a  deliinite  time  should  be  set  apart  for 
history  classes  to  collect  and  mount  pictures  which  aid  in  inter- 
preting history:  to  collect  and  arrange  (preferably  by  mounting 
on  thin  cardboard)  articles  from  newspapers  and  magazhies;  to 
construct  simple  costumes  and  equipment.  The  use  of  all  of 
these  will  make  history  more  real  and  vital  to  children.  The 
pictures  and  articles  should  be  cataloged  by  pupils  and  kept  within 
easy  access.  The  collection  may  be  considered  the  property  of 
a  given  class  or  room  and  may  be  loaned  to  other  rooms  or 
schools. 

The  principle  involved  in  making  and  cataloging  such  equip- 
ment is,  if  applied  to  a  system  of  schools,  even  more  stimulating 
and  economical.  For  example,  in  a  given  building  of  sixteen 
teachers,  during  one  term  four  rooms  could  collect  pictures  show- 
ing life  in  other  lands;  four  could  collect  useful  articles  grown 
or  manufactured  in  the  community;  four,  interesting  objects  of 
nature,  and  four,  material  on  such  a  topic  as  "How  to  be  a  good 
farmer."  \\^hen  the  collections  were  finished  they  would  become 
the  joint  property  of  all  different  rooms,  to  be  used  regularly  in 
class  work.  Having  added  to  the  general  benefit  of  the  school 
as  a  whole,  the  dififerent  rooms  would  be  more  enthusiastic  the 
following  year  in  planning  work  along  a  new  line. 

Reading-  world  maps.  For  grades  below  the  fourth  the  globe 
is  the  best  representation  of  the  earth's  surface,  but  in  the  upi'>er 
grades  a  map,  on  which  the  class  can  see  at  a  glance  the  relative 
positions  of  continents  and  oceans,  is  necessary. 

For  reading  directions  the  Mercator  map  of  the  world  is  best, 
but  the  shapes  of  the  continents  may  best  be  shown  on  separate 
continent  maps  and  their  relative  sizes  on  a  globe. 

Teaching  wall  and  floor  maps.  It  is  very  important  that 
pupils  in  the  grammar  grades  be  trained  in  reading  wall  and  floor 
maps.  Many  times  during  a  term's  work  a  pupil,  or  group  of 
pupils,  should  from  the  map  tell  to  the  class  the  geography  of 
the  country  under  consideration.  A  pointer  should  always  be 
used  in  this  work.  The  pupils  should  constantly  refer  to  the 
reading  material  in  the  geography  which  explains  any  special 
point  indicated  on  the  map.  and  more  important  still,  the  pupils — 
not  the  teacher — should  do  the  talkinsf.    A  test  of  this  would  be 


48 

the  ability  of  a  pupil  to  talk  for  fifteen  minutes  interestingly  and 
to  the  point  from  the  map  of  New  Jersey. 

Reading:  surface  features  on  continent  maps.  Various  ways 
of  representing  relief  forms  on  maps  have  been  attempted.  Not 
even  from  an  excellent  model  does  the  average  child  gain  un- 
assisted even  a  fairly  correct  idea  of  the  surface  features  of  a 
continent.  When  asked  to  illustrate  with  clay  or  sand  his  ideas 
of  the  western  highland  of  North  America  the  average  child  will 
model  an  impossibly  high,  steep  and  narrow  ridge  set  down  on 
a  perfectly  flat  plain  represented  at  sea  level.  Clear  images  may 
be  obtained  by  pictures  issued  by  various  railroads  to  show  the 
scenic  attractions  of  their  routes.  The  teacher  should  take 
imaginary  journeys  across  the  country  with  the  class,  discussing 
the  advantages  of  different  routes.  Pictures  should  be  supple- 
mented by  good  descriptions  and  should  be  studied  in  connection 
with  the  best  physical  maps  to  be  obtained.  Occasionally  a  child 
should  be  asked  to  describe  from  looking  at  the  map  the  surface 
features  of  some  region  of  which  he  has  not  seen  pictures,  but 
the  ability  to  read  the  appearance  of  a  landscape  from  a  physical 
map  is  something  that  comes  slowly  to  most  people. 

The  teacher  must  hold  in  mind  the  fact  that  this  is  the  only 
opportunity  that  many  of  the  boys  and  girls  of  this  grade  will 
have  to  study  North  America  and  the  United  States  under  school- 
room conditions.  Many  pupils  who  are  over-age  will  leave  school 
at  the  end  of  this  grade.  Especial  effort  must  be  made  to  get 
these  boys  and  girls  acquainted  with  the  geography  of  their 
country.  One  guiding  principle,  then,  is  that  the  year  should 
create  in  the  pupils  such  a  lasting  interest  in  the  more  important 
facts  of  the  earth  that  geography  will  help  them  all  through 
their  lives.  Teacher  and  pupils  will  find  solutions  to  the  prob- 
lems set  forth  in  assignment,  through  textbook,  contact  with 
nature,  articles  of  industry,  and  supplementary  reading  from 
magazines,  history  and  geography  readers. 

NORTH  AMERICA 

Four  weeks  should  be  spent  upon  the  continent  of  North 
America  as  a  whole.  This  study  should  give  the  pupil  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  important  physical  features  of  the  continent,  its 
location  with  regard  to  other  continents,  its  climatic  conditions, 
and  its  regional  parts,  and  also  a  beginning  basis  for  the  more 
detailed  study  of  the  United  States. 


49 

In  studying  even  such  a  large  unit  as  our  continent  the  work 
need  not  be  lifeless  and  formal,  but  can  be  taken  up  in  such  a 
way  that  the  pupil's  interest  is  used.  The  continent  is  our  con- 
tinent and  it  do€s  possess  a  history  which  the  children  can  under- 
stand. 

For  example,  the  continent  is  divided  into  certain  great  regions 
with  respect  to  surface  features.  The  eastern  coastal  plain,  the 
eastern  highland  section,  the  central  plain,  the  western  highland 
section,  the  northern  plain — each  and  all  of  these  geography 
facts  may  have  interest  for  the  child  if  he  can  see  that  by  learn- 
ing such  facts  he  is  getting  valuable  information  about  his 
continent. 

These  great  surface  features  and  climatic  conditions  can  be 
tied  up  with  occupations  of  people,  products,  transportation  and 
possible  development  of  regions  studied. 

It  is  important  to  keep  in  mind  the  fact  that  the  child  is  to 
sense  the  general  geographical  facts  of  North  America.  As  soon 
as  he  has  sensed  these  facts,  he  is  ready  to  begin  a  study  of  the 
United  States. 

OXriLINE    OF  WORK  ON   NORTH   AMERICA 

The  outline  of  North  America  is  given  as  a  guide  for  the 
teacher  in  organizing  and  presenting  her  work.  By  whatever 
means  she  approaches  the  study  of  the  continent  of  North 
America — through  its  industries,  food,  climate,  occupations, 
important  environment,  needs  to  be  satisfied — this  outline  is  a 
center  about  which  these  things  are  to  be  grouped.  She  should 
use  postcards,  pictures,  lantern  slides,  newspaper  clippings,  relief 
maps  and  whatever  other  illustrative  material  will  best  suit  her 
purpose. 

STUDY  OF  THE  CONTINENT  OF  NORTH  AMERICA 

1.  Location,  size  and  relief.  The  location  of  this  continent 
should  be  taught  with  reference  to  the  hemisphere  in  which  it  is 
placed,  the  zones  in  which  it  lies,  and  its  relation  to  the  other 
continents. 

In  discussing  the  size  of  the  continent  the  whole  emphasis  is 
upon  its  relative  size  in  comparison  with  the  other  continents. 
The  problem  of  relief  deals  with  location,  extent  and  influence 
of,  first,  the  highlands,  and  second,  the  lowlands. 

4  GEOG 


50 

2.  Climate,  in  dealing  with  the  climate  the  teacher  is  to  pre- 
sent temperature  as  to  variations  in  different  sections  and  different 
altitudes;  its  effect  upon  plant  and  animal  life,  industries  and 
people;  rainfall  as  to  source,  variations  in  the  amount  of  precipi- 
tation, influence  upon  plant  and  animal  life,  industries  and  people. 

3.  Drainage.  Drainage  might  be  discussed  with  reference  to 
highlands  or  lowlands.  By  stressing  the  rivers,  lakes  and  seas 
as  the  important  agents  in  drainage,  the  teacher  has  a  better 
chance  to  show  how  these  factors  affect  the  vegetable,  animal 
and  human  life  on  the  continent.  Under  these  the  teacher  may 
focus  the  discussion  on  tlie  important  variations,  on  the  relation 
between  animal  and  vegetable  life  and  their  relation  to  climate 
and  soil,  and  on  forest  and  agriculture  sections  in  their  relation  „ 
to  drainage  by  means  of  river  and  streams.  i 

4.  Occupations  of  people.  Here  the  work  should  be  so  organ- 
ized that  the  occupations  of  the  people  are  seen  as  an  important 
part  of  the  history  of  the  continent.  These  occupations  are  in- 
fluenced by  the  climate  and  the  soil  and  drainage  system,  which 
are  important  factors  in  the  distribution  of  population  over  the 
continent,  the  congestion  of  population  in  certain  sections  and  the 
development  of  commercial  routes. 

5.  Mining:  resources.  Mining  resources  are  important  in  fur- 
nishing the  people  with  opportunities  for  work  and  in  furnishing 
much  of  the  raw  material  by  which  manufacturing  is  carried  on. 

6.  People.  The  people  of  the  continent  should  be  talked  about 
with  reference  to  the  racial  stocks  from  which  they  came,  their 
occupations,  their  ideals,  their  participation  in  government  and 
their  contribution  to  social  and  industrial  development.  v 

Map  drawing  and  modeling.     Have  pupils  make  ^ 

1.  Outline  map  of  North  America,  indicating 

a.  The  two  great  highland  regions 

b.  One  great  river  system 

c.  United  States,  Canada,  and  Mexico  (in  colors) 

d.  The  meridian  at  "Washington 

2.  Outline  map  of  New  Jersey,  indicating 

a.  Local  county 

b.  Important  cities  within  state,  New  York  City  and  Phila 

delphia 

c.  Important  waterways 

3.  Product  map  of 

a.  United  States 

b.  New  Jersey 


4 


5' 

UNITED  STATES 

The  first  emphasis  in  the  study  of  the  United  States  is  upon 
regions.  These  regions  influence  occupations,  products,  and  hfe 
in  general.  For  example,  the  great  mining  regions  furnish  cer- 
tain occupations,  which  in  turn  require  certain  types  of  men  who 
are  able  to  withstand  hard  physical  labor.  Agricultural  regions 
furnish  opiX)rtunities  for  certain  occupations,  which  in  turn  make 
lines  of  transportation  to  reach  those  regions.  Naturally  regions 
will  overlap  the  divisions  or  sections  of  states.  They  will  also 
reach  into  Canada  and  Mexico.  It  is  fundamental  that  in  teach- 
ing according  to  the  suggestions  given  the  political  boundaries 
should  be  temporarily  ignored,  for  it  is  of  prime  importance  that 
the  pupils  put  meaningful  content  into  this  geography  work. 

In  the  study  of  manufactures,  wherever  possible  the  articles 
discussed  should  be  brought  into  the  classroom.  This  is  true  also 
of  agricultural  products,  ores,  forest  products,  and  whatever 
articles  may  be  obtained  relative  to  grazing  and  fishing. 

Regions 

1.  Manufacturing 

Eastern  section 

Clothing,  shoes 

Railway  equipment 

Steel  and  iron 

Glass 

Automobiles 
Central  section 

Glass 

Automobiles,  wagons 

Farming  implements 

Furniture 
Southern  section 

Iron,  steel 

Cotton 

2.  Agricultural 

Grains 

Sugar 

Cotton 

Rice 

Orchard  fruits 

3.  Mining 

Iron 

Stone 

Oil 


4.  Lumbering 


5.  Grazing 


6.  Fishinj 


52 

Coal 

Copper 

Silver 

Redwood  and  fir 

Hardwood 

Pine  (hard  and  soft) 

Cattle 
Sheep 
Horses 


Oysters 
Cod 
Salmon 
7.  Health  resorts,  pleasure  and  scenic  resorts 
Adirondacks 
Maine  woods 
Florida 
California 

Certain  Rocky  Mountain  sections 
Jersey  Coast 
Great  Lakes 

Certain  sections  in  the  South 
Yellowstone  Park 
Grand  Canyon 
Niagara 
Hudson 
Berkshire  Hills 

In  organizing  the  work  as  indicated  by  the  outline  excellent 
opportunity  is  offered  the  teacher  to  center  the  discussion  around 
three  great  physical  regions  of  the  United  States — the  Eastern 
slope,  the  great  Central  Plain,  and  the  Rocky  Mountains  and 
Pacific  Coast.  The  points  developed  from  time  to  time  can  be 
worked  over  as  causal  facts  to  be  connected  with  either  the  physi- 
cal part  of  the  geography  or  the  human  part — that  which  shows 
what  influence  man  has  had  in  handling  soil,  in  controlling  output 
of  minerals,  in  taking  care  of  transportation,  in  planning  cities, 
in  establishing  trade  centers,  in  making  provisions  for  health 
resorts — shows,  in  short,  that  man  is  one  of  the  most  important 
geography  facts  of  North  America. 

The  outlying  possessions  of  the  United  States  —  Alaska, 
Hawaii,  Porto  Rico,  Philippines,  Guam,  the  Virgin  Islands,  to- 
gether with  the  independent  island  of  Cuba — should  be  studied 


53 

briefly  in  connection  with  the  United  States  by  means  of  the 
products  raised,  lines  of  transportation  established  between  the 
United  States,  and  the  educational  opportunities  offered. 

While  the  chief  interest  is  centered  in  the  United  States,  neces- 
sarily much  of  the  geography  of  Mexico,  Central  America  and 
Canada  is  being  taught.  Much  of  this  work,  however,  has  been 
accomplished  through  the  study  of  the  regions  of  the  continent, 
since  these  regions  extend  over  the  borders  of  the  United  States. 
For  example,  when  one  is  studying  the  wheat  regions  of  the  great 
Northwest  he  is  studying  conditions  in  the  northwestern  section 
of  the  United  States,  and  at  the  same  time  he  is  studying  condi- 
tions which  obtain  in  much  of  Canada,  lying  immediately  north. 

NEW  JERSEY 

If  the  work  has  been  carried  on  as  indicated  the  pupils  should 
have  a  general  knowledge  of  the  geography  of  the  United  States 
which  will  give  them  a  basis  for  a  more  detailed  study  of  some 
particular  parts  of  it.  For  example,  it  is  of  special  importance 
for  the  children  of  New  Jersey  to  learn  more  about  the  regions 
bordering  on  the  Atlantic  Coast.  Children  and  teacher  may  use 
much  initiative  in  getting  acquainted  with  the  geography  region 
in  which  the  state  of  New  Jersey  lies.  Here  is  offered  an  oppor- 
tunity for  special  note-book  making,  for  journey  taking,  for 
class  projects,  and  for  industry  and  product  maps.  This  work 
would  also  furnish  excellent  basis  for  problem  review. 

It  is  very  important  that  fifth  grade  pupils  study  the  geography 
of  New  Jersey  in  much  detail.  Therefore,  they  should  study  the 
great  industrial  development  that  is  going  on  within  New  Jersey : 
the  place  that  New  Jersey  occupies  in  potato  raising,  truck  farm- 
ing, general  agriculture  and  dairying;  her  great  mineral  re- 
sources such  as  iron  and  zinc  mines,  clay  beds ;  and  her  fishing 
industries.  Attention  should  also  be  given  to  the  importance  of 
the  New  Jersey  coast  as  a  summer  resort. 

Definite  lessons  should  be  given  upon  the  counties  of  the  State. 
They  should  be  presented  with  reference  to  their  natural  re- 
sources, industries,  transportation  facilities,  special  attractive 
features.  Pupils  should  know  the  names  of  all  the  counties  and 
be  able  to  locate  them  on  a  map. 

A  fifth  grade  pupil  should  be  able  to  use  a  wall  map  intelli- 
gently, pointing  out  geography  facts  in  regard  to  his  county — 


54 

farming,  mining,  or  dairying  sections,  if  there  are  such;  the 
county-seat,  important  towns,  historic  points  of  interest.  These 
historic  points  of  interest  should  be  dwelt  on  especially  in  order 
to  help  engender  local  and  state  pride.  This  is  very  important 
and  in  no  case  should  be  omitted. 

The  study  of  these  geographical  factors  should  give  the  pupils 
a  great  pride  in  their  own  state.  This  pride  would  be  increased 
by  giving  some  attention  to  the  government  of  New  Jersey,  her 
educational  system,  and  the  rapid  growth  of  important  cities.  It 
is  recommended  that  fifth  grade  teachers  refer  to  A  Sugges- 
tive Program  for  the  Celebration  of  "New  Jersey  Day"  in  the 
Public  Schools  of  New  Jersey,  prepared  by  the  Department  of 
Public  Instruction  in  1916.  This  pamphlet  emphasizes  the  im- 
portance of  New  Jersey's  geographic  position,  her  natural  re- 
sources, her  pleasure  resorts,  and  her  contributions  to  our  federal 
union. 

It  is  profitable  for  the  pupils  to  locate  on  a  wall  map  all 
states  in  the  Union  and  the  capitals  of  the  states  near  New  Jersey. 
It  is  strongly  advised  that  schools  be  furnished  with  blackboard 
maps  and  that  pupils  be  given  opportunity  to  learn  locational 
geography  by  building  up  such  maps. 

Even  after  this  work  has  been  accomplished  there  still  remains 
time  for  some  fact  stressing  with  reference  to  cities  of  the  United 
States,  rivers,  lakes,  coast  waters,  mountains,  capes  and  plains. 
For  example,  it  would  be  well  for  the  teacher  to  decide  upon  a 
small  list  of  important  cities  and  a  small  number  of  rivers  which 
the  fifth  grade  children  ought  to  know. 

APPLICATION   OF  CERTAIN  PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

If  the  study  of  latitude,  longitude  and  standard  time,  rain, 
ocean  currents  and  their  effects,  temperature,  distribution  of 
plants,  animals  and  peoples  of  the  earth,  is  to  be  productive  of 
results,  these  topics  should  be  taken  up  in  connection  with  these 
regions  where  they  are  of  special  importance.  In  the  fifth  and 
sixth  grades  the  industries  and  the  modes  of  life  might  be  ex- 
plained in  terms  of  the  above  mentioned  topics  in  the  various 
regions  studied. 

The  following  problems  suggest  the  application  of  the  fore- 
going principles   to  the   study   of   regional   geography.      Each 


55 

teacher  should  select  four  from  the  list  as  a  minimum  limit  for 
class  study. 

1.  Why  has  Atlantic  City  become  a  g-reat  pleasure  resort? 
Select  cities  in  the  United  States  in  about  the  same  latitude  as 
Atlantic  City  and  show  how  their  climate  differs  from  that  of 
Atlantic  City. 

2.  How  manv  degrees  apart  are  the  northernmost  and 
southernmost  points  in  New  Jersey?  What  difference  would 
there  be  in  the  growing-  season  of  the  two  regions?  Cape  May 
is  as  far  south  as  what  southern  city?  Should  we  go  two  degrees 
farther  south,  what  crops  unknown  to  our  state  would  we  find? 

3.  Between  what  parallels  of  latitude  is  nearly  all  the  cotton 
of  the  world  produced  ? 

4.  Why  is  such  a  large  part  of  that  section  of  country  which 
lies  west  of  meridian  100  degrees  given  over  to  grazing?  Ex- 
plain the  lack  of  rainfall. 

5.  How  many  degrees  difference  in  latitude  is  there  between 
southern  Illinois  and  northern  Minnesota?  What  difference 
would  there  be  in  the  length  of  the  growing  season  in  the  two 
places?  (Ninety  days  difference  in  number  of  days  between 
killing  frosts.) 

6.  Compare  the  plant  products  of  our  eastern  coast  south  of 
parallel  40  with  the  plant  products  of  corresponding  regions  on 
our  western  coast.    Account  for  the  differences. 

7.  Why  do  trees  attain  greater  growth  on  the  coasts  of  north- 
ern California,  Washington  and  Oregon  than  elsewhere  in  our 
country  ? 

8.  Point  out  the  irrigated  sections  of  our  country  and  show 
why  irrigation  is  necessary. 

LATITTIDE-LONGITUDE  GAMES 

Children  tend  to  confuse  the  terms  latitude  and  longitude, 
parallel  and  meridian.  The  difference  can  be  made  clear  for  all 
time  by  having  them  play  a  latitude-longitude  g-ame.  using  such 
questions  as  the  following : 

1.  I  am  thinking  of  a  point  on  parallel  40  degrees  north  lati- 
tude, meridian  90  degrees  west  longitude.     In  what  state  is  it? 

2.  I  am  thinking  of  a  point  on  parallel  50  degrees  north  lati- 
tude, 30  degrees  east  longitude.  In  what  country  is  it?  What 
citv  is  near  it? 


56 

The  class  may  be  divided  into  two  sections  and  the  game 
played  at  first  with  books  open.  Have  each  child  write  on  paper 
a  question  similar  to  the  ones  siigg-ested  above.  Let  the  two 
groups  exchange  papers  and  each  child  write  the  answer  to  the 
question  which  he  receives.  The  group  first  answering  correctly 
the  greater  number  of  questions  wins  the  game.  Later  the  game 
may  be  played  orally  with  books  closed,  like  an  old  time  spelling 
match. 

PROJECT  WORK 

The  following  project  work  ofifers  opportunities  by  which  the 
important  facts  of  geography  may  be  vitally  connected.  If  one 
such  project  is  carried  out  in  detail  in  each  half  term's  work, 
the  pupils  will  make  use  of  practically  all  the  geography  which 
they  need  to  know  in  this  grade. 

SUGGESTIONS 

Corn.  Have  pupils  make  a  study  of  the  uses  of  corn.  (Refer 
to  magazines  and  advertisements  which  show^  the  many  uses  to 
which  corn  and  corn  products  are  put.) 

Visit  corn  fields  or  make  a  special  study  of  pictures  showing 
stages  in  corn  cultivation.  Have  pupils  compare  the  method  of 
corn  raising  of  the  early  American  with  that  used  by  the  pro- 
gressive farmer  of  the  East  today.  How  does  the  raising  of 
corn  in  the  West  different  from  that  in  the  East? 

Determine  upon  the  conditions  necessary  for  successful  corn 
raising  (soil,  climate,  rainfall,  seed  testing,  cultivation,  harvest- 
ing, marketing).  See  Bulletins  of  U.  S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture. 

Locate  important  transportation  routes  used  for  marketing 
corn. 

Compare  quality  of  corn  raised  in  certain  sections  of  United 
States;  estimate  value  of  crop;  show  increase  in  bushels  and 
average  per  acre  since  i860. 

Make  map  showing  great  corn  regions. 

Coal.  Study  maps  of  United  States  show'ing  principal  regions 
where  coal  is  mined. 

Show  principal  uses  to  which  coal  is  put — heat  for  dwellings, 
heat  for  furnaces  and  forges,  source  of  manufacturing  gas, 
source  of  certain  coal  tar  products,  use  in  transportation. 


0/ 

Compare  methods  of  mining- — deep  pit,  surface. 

Report  on  difficulties  in  mining*. 

Trace  transportation  routes,  showing  how  coal  reaches  the 
great  manufacturing  centers. 

Contrast  values  of  coal  output — amount  mined  in  1890  with 
amount  mined  in  191 5. 

List  important  influences  that  this  industry  has  upon  com- 
merce, the  occupations  of  the  people  and  the  people  of  the  United 
States. 

SUGGESTIONS  ON   THE  TEACHING  OF   CITIES 

The  following  principles  and  devices  in  regard  to  teaching  city 
development  will  be  of  service  to  the  teacher  of  any  grade  in 
which  cities  are  considered  as  important  geographical  facts.  The 
cities  mentioned  should  be  studied  in  direct  connection  with  the 
state  or  district  in  which  they  are  located,  and  not  as  isolated 
geographical  facts. 

CITIES  SUGGESTED  FOR  SPECIAL  STUDY 

Those  cities  in  italics  should  be  taught  to  all  fifth  grade  chil- 
dren. Teachers  who  have  opportunity  may  select  others  from 
the  list. 

Trenton,  Atlantic  City,  Jersey  City,  Caniden,  Paterson,  Elisa- 
beth, Neivark,  Washington,  Philadelphia,  St.  Louis,  New  York, 
Chicago,  Boston,  Pittsburgh,  San  Francisco,  Los  Angeles, 
Denver,  Cincinnati,  Birmingham.  (Alabama),  New  Orleans, 
Detroit,  Minneapolis,  Manila,   Seattle,  Cleveland. 

Most  of  our  large  cities  are  dependent  for  their  existence  upon 
both  commerce  and  manufacturing.  Cities  de^^endent  chiefly 
upon  commerce  grow  up  ( i )  where  conditions  favor  the  collec- 
tion and  distribution  of  commodities  on  a  large  scale,  or  (2) 
on  important  lines  of  communication  at  points  where  the  mode 
of  transportation  is  changed.  Such  places  are  (i)  seaports, 
(2)  river  ports,  (3)  lake  ports,  and  (4)  railroad  centers.  Sea- 
port cities  are  influenced  in  their  growth  principally  by  (\)  their 
position  in  relation  to  great  trade  routes,  (2)  the  size,  population 
and  resources  of  adjacent  regions,  (3)  the  character  of  their 
harbors.  River  ports  are  located  at  the  heads  of  river  naviga- 
tion, at  the  junctions  of  rivers,  on  great  bends  of  rivers,  and  at 
points  where  falls  or  rapids  occur.    A  mountain  pass  upon  which 


S8 

trade  routes  focus  may  lead  to  the  growth  of  a  city ;  so  also  may 
a  ferry  or  bridge  across  a  river. 

Cities  chiefly  dependent  upon  manufacturing  grow  up  as  a 
result  of  their  position  in  relation  to  the  following  factors :  ( i ) 
command  of  power,  (2)  raw  materials,  (3)  markets,  (4)  labor, 
(5)  transportation  facilities. 

Lead  pupils  to  see  some  of  the  underlying  causes  of  the  growth 
of  the  various  types  of  cities — commercial,  manufacturing,  min- 
ing; political  centers,  health  and  pleasure  resorts.  This  may  be 
done  by  a  study  of  the  conditions  which  promote  the  location  of 
industries  in  which  city  dwellers  are  engaged.  Have  the  most 
important  cities  studied,  located  and  classified.  Consult  tables 
of  population  frequently  for  purposes  of  comparison.  Use  pic- 
tures to  make  the  study  more  interesting  and  illuminating. 

CHICAGO  AS  A  T7FE 

^\^ly  has  Chicago  grown  to  be  such  a  great  city  ?  The  follow- 
ing method  of  treatment  indicates  an  economical  way  to  secure 
interest  and  effort  in  solving  the  problem.  Have  pupils  make  a 
list  from  the  appendix  of  the  textbook  of  all  the  cities  in  the 
world  with  a  population  of  more  than  two  millions.  Which  is 
the  youngest  of  these  cities  ?  How  does  it  rank  among  the  great 
cities  of  the  world  in  size?  What  natural  advantages  have  led 
to  its  rapid  development?  For  answers  to  these  questions  refer 
the  pupil  to  a  list  of  the  factors  leading  to  the  growth  of  com- 
mercial and  manufacturing  cities.  The  following  are  suggested 
as  a  minimum :  transportation  facilities,  nearness  to  raw  ma- 
terials, nearness  to  markets,  nearness  to  power  for  machinery, 
intelligent  labor  and  enterprising  men.  Then  lead  the  children 
to  suggest  that  it  will  be  necessary  to  consult  product  maps,  rail- 
road center  maps,  population  charts.  Let  the  children  draw 
conclusions  as  to  the  leading  manufactured  products  of  Chicago 
and  the  chief  products  distributed  from  this  point.  Inquire  as 
to  the  possible  intermediate  and  ultimate  destination  of  these 
products.  Use  the  textbook  to  verify  conclusions  and  to  sum- 
marize the  leading  factors  in  the  development  of  Chicago.  In 
studying  Chicago  as  indicated  pupils  and  teachers  should  see  it 
as  (i)  lake  port,  (2)  grain  market,  (3)  railroad  center,  (4) 
meat  packing  center,  (5)  manufacturing  center,  (6)  financial 
center. 


59 

BUeOESTIYE  QUSSTIOITS  ON  VEWABK  AND  NEW   ORLEANS 

Newark.  Name  the  largest  city  in  your  own  state.  How 
does  it  rank  among  the  cities  of  the  United  States  ?  In  what  part 
of  the  state  is  it?  In  what  county?  To  what  type  of  city  does 
it  belong?  Make  a  list  of  the  leading  factors  that  cause  the 
growth  of  a  manufacturing  city.  Underscore  the  factors  which 
you  think  have  been  most  important  in  the  growth  of  Newark. 
In  what  way  have  men  increased  the  natural  advantages  pos- 
sessed by  this  city?  Find  out  how  many  railroads  pass  through 
Newark.  Make  a  list  of  the  chief  articles  manufactured  there. 
Where  do  the  raw  materials  for  these  come  from?  What  effect, 
if  any,  has  been  its  proximity  to  New  York? 

New  Orleans.  Show  why  New  Orleans  has  become  the 
largest  city  in  the  South.  How  will  the  Panama  Canal  affect  its 
growth?  If  the  plans  for  deepening  and  controlling  the 
Mississippi,  Missouri  and  Ohio  rivers  and  for  building  a  canal 
between  the  Mississippi  and  Lake  Michigan  should  be  carried 
out.  how  might  New  Orleans  and  other  cities  on  these  waters  be 
affected  ? 

PROBLEMS  ON   NORTH   AMERICA 

The  problems  on  North  America  have  been  selected,  as  in  all 
other  cases,  because  they  emphasize  the  important  facts  and  prin- 
ciples that  should  be  stressed.  No  teacher  is  expected  to  use  all 
problems  given.  She  is  expected  to  select  those  that  can  be 
studied  with  m.ost  advantage  to  the  pupils  under  her  care. 
Moreover,  she  is  to  learn  how  to  make  the  problem  in  geography 
as  definite  and  clear  as  the  problem  in  arithmetic.  She  and 
pupils  must  decide  what  questions  or  problems  are  to  be  solved, 
what  materials  are  to  be  used  in  the  solution,  how  the  work  can 
be  organized  from  day  to  day  until  a  satisfactory^  answer  is 
found.  In  answering  the  more  difficult  problems  teacher  and 
pupils  will  need  to  spend  several  days.  In  some  cases,  as  for 
example,  problem  lo  on  North  America,  page  60,  or  problem  i 
on  Great  Britain,  page  ^,  much  of  the  geography  of  each 
country  must  be  understood  before  the  problems  can  Ije  fully 
solved.  All  teachers  should  read  the  discussion  on  the  "Problem 
Method  of  Teaching"  in  Part  II  of  this  monograph. 


6o 

1.  What  advantages  does  the  location  of  our  continent  offer 
its  people  for : 

a.  Trading  with  other  people? 

b.  Making  a  living? 

2.  Which  is  better  located  for  world  commerce,  North  or 
South  America? 

3.  How  does  tlie  surface  of  our  continent  affect  the  occupa- 
tions of  the  people  ? 

4.  What  effect  has  the  arrangement  of  mountains  in  North 
America  on  its  climate  and  rainfall? 

5.  How  do  the  highland  regions  hinder  or  help  people  in  mak- 
ing a  living? 

6.  Compare  temperatures  on  the  east  coast  with  those  on  the 
west  coast.  Compare  temperatures  of  the  w^est  coast  with  those 
of  the  interior.     Explain  the  difference. 

7.  How  do  ocean  currents  affect  the  eastern  coast  of  our 
continent? 

8.  Why  are  winters  colder  and  summers  warmer  in  the  in- 
terior of  our  continent  than  near  the  coast? 

9.  What  advantages  for  carrying  on  internal  trade  have  the 
people  of  our  continent? 

10.  Point  out  the  sections  of  our  continent  best  fitted  to  sup- 
port a  dense  population  and  explain  why  they  are  better  fitted 
than  other  sections. 

11.  Account  for  the  great  population  on  our  eastern  coast? 

12.  Why  did  the  New  England  States  gradually  change  from 
a  farming  to  a  manufacturing  section  ? 

13.  How  do  the  farms  and  ranches  of  the  Central  States 
differ  from  those  of  New  Jersey? 

14.  How  did  the  Civil  War  influence  the  industrial  develop- 
ment of  the  southern  states? 

15.  What  conditions  have  led  to  the  development  of  Chicago 
into  a  large  city? 

16.  Why  has  New  York  grown  to  be  the  largest  city  in  the 
world  ? 

17.  What  advantages  arise  from  the  fact  that  the  industries 
of  the  South  are  different  from  those  of  the  North? 

18.  Which  of  our  colonial  possessions  do  vou  consider  most 
valuable?    Why? 

19.  Why  was  Alaska  worth  its  purchase  price  to  the  United 
States  ? 


I 


6i 

20.  Find  five  advantages  for  making  a  living  which  our  con- 
tinent offers  progressive  people. 

21.  Why  did  the  United  States  stop  the  Chinese  from  coming 
to  this  country? 

SUPPLEMENTARY  AND  REFERENCE  BOOKS  FOR  PUPILS 
AND  TEACHER 

GRADE  V 

Brooks,  E.  C.     Story  of  Cotton.     Rand  McNallj',  Chicago 

Carpenter,  F.  G.     Geographical  Readers.     American  Book  Co.  N.  Y. 

Chamberlain,  J.  F.     The  Continents  and  their  People.     Macmillan,  N.  Y. 

Hotchkiss,  C.  W.  Representative  Cities  of  the  United  States.  Hough- 
ton, Boston 

McMurry,  C.  A.    Larger  Types  of  American  Geography.    Macmillan,  N.  Y. 

McMurry,  C.  A.  Type  Studies  from  the  Geography  of  the  United  States. 
Macmillan,  N.  Y. 

Monroe,  W.  S.  &  Buckbee,  Anna.  Our  Country  and  its  People.  Harper, 
N.  Y. 


GRADE    VI 

CONTINENTS  OF  EASTERN  HEMISPHERE 

SUGGESTED  TIME  ALLOTMENT 

First  Half 

EUROPE 

The  continent  as  a  whole — 2  weeks 

Kinds  of  people  and  relation  to  us — 3  days 

Location,  size,  relief,  drainage,  climate — 2  days 

Resources — agricultural,  mining,  fishing,  manufacturing — 1  week 
Great  Britain — 5  weeks 

Relation  of  people  to  us — history,   government,  trade,   language, 
literature — 1  week 

Location,  size,  relief,  drainage,  climate — 3  days 

Resources  and  occupations  of  the  people — 2  weeks 

Colonies  and  Ireland — 1  week 

Cities — 2  days 
Germany — 2  weeks 
France — 2  weeks 
Austria  Hungary — 1  week 
Belgium  and  Holland — 1  week 
Russia — 2  weeks 

Norway,  Sweden  and  Denmark — 1  week 
Spain  and  Portugal — 2  days 
Italy — 1  week 
Switzerland — 3  days 
Greece — 3  days 
Balkan  States — 2  days 

Second  Half 

ASIA,  AFEICA,    AXJSTBALIA  AND  NEW  ZEALAND 

Asia — 8  weeks 

Continent  study — 1  week 

Turkish  Empire — 3  days 
V  Japanese  Empire — 2  weeks 

China — 1  week 

Indian  Empire  and  Ceylon — 1  week 

Asiatic  Russia — 1  week 

Indo  China  and  Malay  Peninsula — 2  days 

Arabia,  Persia.  Afghanistan — 3  days 

Islands — 2  days 
Africa — 4  weeks 

Australia  and  New  Zealand — 3  weeks 

Review    of    Elastern    Hemisphere    with    special    reference    to    Europe — 4 
weeks 

(63) 


64 

The  general  principles  discussed  under  North  America  may 
be  applied  to  Europe.  The  approach  to  the  study  of  the  con- 
tinent should  be  made  through  a  brief  survey  of  the  history  of 
the  important  peoples  of  Europe.  However  short  this  part  of 
the  work  may  be,  it  has  its  value  in  making  the  pupil  feel  that 
he  is  still  studying  about  people. 

The  pupils  of  this  grade  are  mature  enough  to  put  some  mean- 
ing into  the  more  scientific  study  of  geography.  For  example, 
they  should  learn  of  the  influences  of  the  gulf  stream  upon 
Europe ;  the  effect  of  the  prevailing  westerlies ;  the  significance 
of  Europe's  geographic  location.  Pupils  of  sixth  and  seventh 
grades  should  obtain  clear  and  definite  ideas  of  location  with 
respect  to  countries,  most  important  mountains  and  rivers,  cities, 
capitals,  harbors  and  trade  routes. 

In  taking  up  a  detailed  study  of  the  separate  countries,  one 
approach  is  through  their  especial  assets  and  disadvantages. 
For  example,  the  British  Isles  and  France  are  excellently  situ- 
ated for  ocean  commerce;  Germany,  Belgium,  Holland,  Den- 
mark, Norway  and  Sweden,  and  Russia  are  less  fortunately 
connected.  Portugal  has  few  good  harbors ;  Spain,  Italy,  Austria 
and  Greece  have  trade  outlets  through  the  Mediterranean. 

The  classroom  work  should  be  organized  around  large  ques- 
tions which  will  unify  the  geography  facts  of  these  countries. 
These  questions  or  problems  will  serve  both  as  points  of  attack 
ind  as  centers  around  which  to  group  subject  matter.  The  fea- 
tures of  each  should  be  studied  with  reference  to  a  unit  previously 
understood — its  climate  with  reference  to  New  Jersey  or  some 
other  part  of  the  United  States ;  its  advantages  as  a  place  to 
live  compared  with  some  other  country. 

The  principles  in  the  foregoing  paragraph  are  to  be  adhered 
to  in  the  approach  to  the  study  of  any  continent  or  country. 

First  Half 

EUROPE 

Introduction.  Pupils  should  first  locate  Europe  in  imagina- 
tion by  pointing  toward  it.  always  facing  the  north.  Steamer 
connections  should  be  named ;  steamship  docks  in  New  York 
City,  Hoboken  and  Philadelphia  being  noted ;  distance  to 
Europe,  as  compared  with  the  width  of  North  America  and  as 
measured    in    days   for   the   voyage,    should   be   given.      Pupils 


65 

should  then  locate  Europe  on  the  map,  comparing  its  latitude 
with  that  of  North  America  and  noting  that  it  is  part  of  a  very 
large  section  or  grand  division,  Eurasia,  and  of  a  still  larger 
land  mass,  the  Eastern  continent.  Trace  four  steamship  routes : 
(i)  to  England,  (2)  to  France  and  Holland,  (3)  to  Germany, 
(4)  to  Italy.  If  possible  have  pictures  of  famous  steamships 
of  these  lines,  of  Sandy  Hook  and  Fire  Island  lighthouses,  of 
Ellis  Island,  Quarantine  Station,  Statue  of  Liberty,  the  south  end 
of  Manhattan  Island.  This  may  be  followed  with  an  imaginary 
ocean  voyage  on  a  real  "liner"  to  Liverpool,  Southampton  or 
Havre,  traced  on  the  map  by  daily  stages  as  "first  day  out," 
"second  day  out." 

Map  study.  Use  of  map  of  Eastern  Hemisphere.  Locate 
Europe  with  reference  to  Asia  and  Africa.  Note  character  of 
coast  line  and  its  advantages.  Note  highland  and  lowland 
regions,  note  the  direction  of  the  most  important  mountain 
systems  as  compared  wnth  those  of  North  America  and  draw 
out  the  significance  of  this  difference.  Have  the  pupils  indicate 
mountain  regions,  the  great  central  low  plain,  a  few  important 
plateau  regions,  five  important  rivers,  the  Mediterranean,  Black 
Caspian,  Baltic  and  North  Seas. 

As  an  aid  to  a  proper  appreciation  of  the  significance  of  moun- 
tains to  human  life,  study  in  a  series  of  lessons,  with  pictures, 
the  Alps,  Pyrenees  and  Balkan  Mountains,  showing  them  :  ( i ) 
As  a  protection  against  the  north  wind  with  the  consequent 
effect  upon  climate;  (2)  As  a  barrier  to  travel  and  migration; 
(3)  In  their  effect  upon  the  character  of  mountain  dwellers 
(illustrate  with  the  Swiss  traits)  ;  (4)  As  storehouses  of  frozen 
moisture  in  the  form  .of  mighty  glaciers.  A  large  and  well 
selected  collection  of  mounted  pictures  of  mountain  peaks  and 
valleys,  glaciers,  mountain  climbing,  Alpine  houses,  mountain 
passes,  the  great  tunnels,  Swiss  mountaineers,  would  be  useful. 

A  study  similar  to  the  above  should  be  made,  in  a  series  of 
lessons,  of  the  great  rivers  of  Europe.  Compare  the  Rhine  with 
the  Hudson  as  to  work,  uses,  scenery,  length,  source,  condition 
of  water,  mouth.  Study  the  Danube,  Elbe,  Vistula,  Volga. 
Make  a  comparison  of  the  Volga  and  Danube  with  the  Mississippi 
as  to  points  of  likeness  and  difference. 

Minimum  number  of  cities  to  be  studied  in  connection 
with  the  geography  of  the  country  in  which  they  are  located 

5  GEOG 


66 

(see  suggestion  in  fifth  grade  outline)  :  Great  Britain — Lon- 
don, Liverpool,  Edinburgh,  Dublin;  France — Paris,  Mar- 
seilles; Germany — Berlin,  Munich,  Hamburg;  Russia — Mos- 
cow, Petrograd;  Austria  Hungary — Vienna;  Turkey — Con- 
stantinople; Italy — Rome,  Venice,  Naples;  Greece — Athens; 
Spain — Madrid;  Holland — The  Plague,  Amsterdam;  Belgium 
— Antwerp;  Norway  and  Sweden — Christiana,  Hammerfest, 
Stockholm, 

THE  SIX  GREAT  NATIONS— GREAT  BRITAIN,  GERMANY,  FRANCE,  RUSSIA,  AUSTRIA 

HUNGARY,   ITALY 

Let  the  pupils  locate  each  country  on  the  map  of  Europe  and 
compare  it  as  to  area  and  population  with  our  own  country ;  also 
have  pupils  arrange  the  countries  in  order  of  area  and  popula- 
tion, beginning  Avith  the  largest.  Have  them  study  each  of  these 
countries  briefly,  noting  its  relation  to  the  sea  and  mountains, 
its  climate,  surface,  soil  and  other  natural  resources,  and  the 
relation  of  these  to  one  another  and  their  bearing  on  the  occupa- 
tions and  mode  of  living.  Have  the  primary  occupations  of 
each  country  illustrated  with  selected  mounted  pictures  and  note 
the  leading  product  or  products  of  each  exported  to  the  United 
States;  also  the  leading  product  or  products  imported  from  the 
United  States.  It  would  be  profitable  to  have  a  committee  of 
pupils  investigate  and  report  upon  the  rank  of  each  of  these 
countries  and  the  United  States  in  the  possession  of  natural 
resources  and  in  the  production  of  steel,  coal,  petroleum,  fabrics, 
steel  products,  grain,  fruits,  lumber,  chemical  materials  and 
meats. 

Problems 
Great   Britain 

1.  Why  is  it  important  for  the  United  States  to  maintain 
adequate  trade  relations  with  Great  Britain? 

2.  Labrador  and  the  British  Isles  are  in  the  same  latitude; 
account  for  their  difference  in  temperature. 

3.  Why  does  Great  Britain  need  to  look  to  other  countries 
for  much  of  her  food  supply  ? 

4.  In  what  ways  are  the  coal  and  iron  mines  of  Great  Britain 
responsible  for  her  development? 

5.  How  are  the  possessions  of  Great  Britain  a  great  help  to 
her? 


^7 

6.  What  benefits  do  the  different  possessions  get  from  Great 
Britain? 

7.  In  what  way  does  her  fishing  industry  return  great 
revenue  ? 

8.  Why  have  London,  Liverpool,  Glasgow,  Manchester,  be- 
come such  great  cities? 

9.  What  are  the  chief  articles  of  trade  between  Great  Britain 
and  the  United  States? 

10.  Why  is  it  necessary  for  Great  Britain  to  maintain  great 
shipping  interests? 

German   Empire 

1.  Why  is  Germany  anxious  to  keep  an  open  trade  with  the 
rest  of  the  world? 

2.  What  are  the  biggest  factors  in  Germany's  industrial  de- 
velopment ? 

3.  What  are  the  chief  articles  of  trade  between  Germany  and 
the  United  States  ? 

4.  How  has  Germany  been  able  to  keep  such  a  large  standing 
army  ? 

5.  Make  special  reports  on  Hamburg,  Berlin  and  Essen. 

France 

1.  Why  is  France  not  as  great  a  manufacturing  country  as 
Great  Britain? 

2.  What  are  the  chief  articles  of  trade  between  France  and 
the  United  States? 

3.  The  farms  of  France  are  very  small  and  are  owned  as  a 
rule  by  the  people  who  cultivate  them.  In  what  way  does  this 
fact  add  to  the  agricultural  interest  of  France? 

4.  Why  is  silk  manufacture  one  of  the  leading  industries  of 
France  ? 

5.  Why  would  an  American  1>e  interested  in  a  visit  to  Paris? 

Russia 

1.  How  has  the  lack  of  seaports  hindered  Russia? 

2.  Why  has  Russia  colder  winters  and  warmer  summers  than 
the  countries  of  Europe  further  west  ? 

3.  Of  what  mutual  advantages  in  times  of  war  and  peace  is 
an  alliance  between  Great  Britain  and  Russia? 


68 

Austria    Hungary 

1.  What  advantages  resulted  from  the  union  of  the  two 
kingdoms  of  Austria  and  Hungary? 

2.  Why  should  Austria  Hungary  seek  to  maintain  friendly 
relations  with  the  Balkan  countries  along  the  Danube  river. 

3.  Why  are  there  so  many  different  kinds  of  people  in  Austria 
Hungary  ? 

Italy 

1.  Why  is  the  position  of  Italy  a  favorable  one?  Why  was 
its  position  a  much  more  important  one  formerly  than  now  ? 

2.  Why  is  agriculture  so  profitable  an  occupation  in  Italy? 

3.  Venice  and  Milan  are  in  nearly  the  same  latitude  as 
Montreal.  How  do  you  account  for  the  difference  in  climate 
between  these  cities  and  Montreal? 

4.  Venice  has  been  called  the  most  interesting  city  in  the 
world.     Why  ? 

5.  What  cities  of  Italy  would  a  student  of  ancient  history 
desire  to  visit? 

6.  Why  do  the  art  museums  of  Italy  surpass  those  of  all  other 
countries  ? 

THE  SCANDINAVIAN  COXTNTEIES 

Develop  the  adventure  phase  of  early  Norse  history  by  reading 
or  having  pupils  read  stories  of  the  Sea  Kings  and  Viking's,  sue! 
as  H.  A.  Mabie's  Norse  Stories  and  Longfellow's  poem,  "The 
Skeleton  in  Armor.''  Note  any  of  these  early  traits  that  still 
survive.  Have  pupils  note  leading  occupations  in  each  of  these 
countries,  leading  exports  to  and  imports  from  the  United  States. 
Note  the  language  of  these  people  and  the  general  family  group 
to  which  they  belong.  Have  pupils  note  the  p€culiar  physical 
characteristics  of  this  region  and  their  relation  to  the  occupations 
and  products  of  these  countries  and  their  influence  upon  the  traits 
and  character  of  the  people. 

Problems 

1.  What  influence  has  the  shore  line  of  Norway  exerted  on 
her  industries? 

2.  Why  is  the  southern  part  of  the  Scandinavian  Peninsula 
the  most  thicklv  settled? 


I 


I 


69 

3-  Why  would  Russia  and  Germany  each  Hke  to  control 
Denmark  ? 

4.  Why  do  the  people  of  Sweden  use  charcoal  in  smelting 
some  of  their  iron  ore? 

5.  If  you  lived  near  a  fiord  of  Norway  what  things  would  you 
have  to  know  how  to  do? 

THE  BALKAN  OOTTNTaiES 

Have  the  pupils  name  and  locate  each  of  the  Balkan  States. 
Let  them  ascertain  by  reading  such  a  book  as  Carpenter's  Europe 
the  traits  and  character  of  these  races  and  the  great  diversity  in 
language,  religion  and  custom.  Let  them  deduce  the  geographic 
reasons  for  these  facts  from  a  study  of  the  physical  features  of 
southeastern  Europe  as  indicated  on  a  good  physical  map  of 
Europe.  The  historic  reasons  might  well  be  developed  by  the 
teacher  by  showing  ( i )  how  the  successive  invasions  of  this 
region  by  the  various  European  and  Asiatic  tribes  introduced 
new  and  different  elements  each  time,  and  (2)  how  the  isolation 
of  the  separate  mountain  valleys  prevented  these  elements  from 
blending  into  one  great  national  stock. 

Problems 

1.  How  has  the  progress  of  the  Balkan  peoples  been  hindered 
by  the  fact  that  there  are  so  many  countries  in  the  Peninsula? 

2.  What  effect  has  Turkey's  misrule  had  on  the  countries  of 
this  peninsula? 

3.  Why  w^ould  Russia  like  to  own  Constantinople? 

THE   IBERIAN   PENINSULA 

Locate  two  countries  composing  the  Iberian  Peninsula.  Show 
how  these  two  countries  are  connected  by  trade  with  the  United 
States.  Let  the  pupils  note  the  leading  occupations  and  race 
characteristics  of  the  people.  A  brief  account  of  events  showing 
the  relation  of  these  countries  to  the  discovery,  exploration  and 
settlement  of  the  Americas  would  be  timely. 

Problems 

1.  What  influence  has  the  surface  of  the  Iberian  Peninsula 
had  on  the  development  of  its  industries? 

2.  Why  did  Spain  lose  most  of  her  colonies? 


3.  What  things  would  the  national  pastime  of  Spain  indicate 
as  to  the  character  of  its  people? 

4.  Why  are  Spain  and  Portugal  now  among  the  weaker 
nations? 

5.  Is  it  likely  that  Spain  may  again  become  one  of  the  greater 
nations  of  Europe  as  in  the  case  of  Italy? 

SWITZERLAND 

Ivocate  and  find  reason  for  the  independent  existence  of 
Switzerland.  Allow  a  group  of  pupils  to  report  upon  the  char- 
acter of  its  government  and  the  large  contribution  the  country 
has  made  to  modern  civilization.  Attention  should  be  called  to 
the  diversity  of  language  in  the  three  regions  of  Switzerland  and 
the  reasons  therefor.  Emphasize  the  beautiful  scenery  of 
Switzerland.  Have  a  group  of  pupils  investigate  and  report 
upon  this  country  as  one  of  the  world's  summer  resorts. 

Problems 

1.  Why  is  Switzerland  called  the  "Playground  of  Europe"? 

2.  In  spite  of  the  lack  of  raw  materials  how  have  the  Swiss 
people  managed  to  do  considerable  manufacturing? 

3.  What  natural  advantages  does  Switzerland  offer  for  manu- 
facturing ? 

4.  Why  has  Switzerland  remained  independent?  Give  several 
reasons. 

5.  How  do  you  account  for  the  fact  that  Switzerland  has  no 
national  language? 

THE  NETHERLANDS 

Contrast  the  Netherlands  with  Switzerland  as  to  surface  fea- 
tures and  occupations  of  the  people.  Emphasize  the  effect  of  the 
natural  fertility  of  the  soil  upon  the  countries.  Utilize  pictures 
showing  the  intensive  character  of  the  agriculture,  the  ease  of 
transportation,  the  industry,  thrift  and  habits  of  cleanliness 
of  the  people,  and  relate  these  facts  to  the  density  of  the  popula- 
tion and  the  larger  per  capita  wealth.  Note  also  the  fisheries 
and  the  nrominence  of  Holland  in  oversea  trade,  and  of  Belgium, 
in  manufacture,  and  deduce  the  reasons  therefor. 


71 

Problems 

1.  What  conditions  have  stimulated  dairying  in  the  Nether- 
lands? Where  do  the  people  find  a  ready  market  for  their 
products  ? 

2.  What  characteristics  of  the  Dutch  people  have  made  their 
great  progress  possible? 

3.  How  have  the  people  of  the  Netherlands  added  to  their 
territory?  Why  is  most  of  Holland  fllat?  Why  fertile?  Com- 
pare with  Louisiana. 

4.  Why  do  the  prevailing  westerlies  blow  with  great  regularity 
over  Holland  ?  How  is  this  fact  of  particular  value  to  the  Dutch 
people  ? 

5.  Belgium  has  always  suffered  as  a  result  of  battles  fought  on 
its  soil  between  some  of  the  Great  Powers.  What  effect  has  this 
had  on  the  country? 

THE  ISLAITBS 

Locate  and  determine  the  national  ownership  and  chief  im- 
portance of  Iceland,  Corsica,  Sardinia,  Crete,  Cyprus,  the  Balearic 
Islands,  Sicily,  the  Azores. 

THE  IMPORTANT  CITIES 

Have  pupils  learn  to  name  and  locate  the  capital  cities  of  the 
major  European  countries.  It  would  be  desirable  for  them  to 
learn  to  recognize  by  pictures  the  important  landmarks  of  each  of 
the  major  capitals,  as,  for  example,  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  West- 
minster Abbey,  Parliament  House,  Tovv^er  of  London,  Trafalgar 
Square,  in  London ;  Notre  Dame  Cathedral,  Eiffel  Tower, 
Louvre,  Grand  Opera  House,  Seine  Bridges,  Arc  de  Triumphe, 
Vendome  Column,  Church  of  the  Madeleine,  in  Paris.  These 
places  should  be  associated  with  some  important  interesting  pro1> 
lem  discussed  during  the  term.  As  additional  optional  problems 
the  children  could  locate  and  mention  at  least  one  important  fact 
in  connection  with  each  of  the  following  cities :  Liverpool,  Man- 
chester, Belfast,  Queenstown,  Glasgow.  Southampton.  Cherbourg, 
Amsterdam,  Hamburg,  Bremen,  Cologne,  Milan,  Nuremberg, 
Rheims.  Calais,  Marseilles.  Naples,  Genoa,  Florence.  Venice. 
Athens,  Moscow.  Odessa,  Warsaw,  Rotterdam.  Antwerp, 
Munich,  Dresden,  Essen. 


72 

SCHOOLS 

Attention  should  be  called  to  the  fact  that  while  the  leading 
European  countries  have  schools  for  all  the  children,  it  is  not 
possible  usually  for  the  children  of  the  poorer  classes  to  go  to  the 
same  schools  as  do  those  of  the  richer  classes.  The  universities 
are  among  the  best  in  the  world  and  there  are  many  of  them. 
As  a  special  problem  certain  pupils  could  secure  pictures  of  the 
buildings  of  the  Universities  of  Oxford,  Paris,  Berlin,  Heidel- 
berg. 

GOVERNMENT 

Pupils  should  be  led  to  distinguish  the  two  principal  kinds  of 
national  government :  ( i )  those  countries  that  have  a  responsible 
ministry  or  cabinet;  (2)  the  autocratic  form  of  government.  In 
the  former  kind  the  ministers  who  carry  on  the  government  must 
do  as  the  majority  of  the  people  want  them  to  do  or  resign.  In 
the  latter  the  ministers  are  appointed  by  the  king  or  emperor 
without  any  expression  of  the  will  of  the  people  and  can  be  dis- 
missed only  by  the  monarch. 

ETJHOPEAN  CIVILIZATION 

Call  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  forefathers  of  practically  all 
of  us  came  originally  from  some  one  of  the  European  countries, 
so  that  our  language,  our  customs  and  ways  of  working  and 
living,  and  our  religion,  laws,  government  and  schools  had  their 
beginnings  in  Europe.  Just  as  we  have  changed  these  laws  and 
customs  to  fit  our  modes  of  life  in  this  country,  so  have  the  coun- 
tries of  Europe  since  the  time  of  our  forefathers  made  changes 
in  their  laws  and  customs  to  meet  new  demands. 

MAP  MAKING  AND  MODELING 

Have  pupils  draw  outhne  map  of  Europe,  indicating: 

a.  Alps  Mountains 

b.  Danube,  Rhine  and  Volga  Rivers 

c.  Boundaries  of  the  six  great  nations 

d.  Capital  cities  of  the  six  great  nations 

e.  Countries  where  population  is  densest 


73 

Second  Half 

ASIA,  AFRICA,  AUSTRALIA   AND   NEW  ZEALAND 

ASIA 

For  suggestion  on  method  of  attack,  see  outline  on  North 
America,  page  49 ;   also  Europe,  page  64. 

Orientation.  Locate  the  country  in  imagination,  and  by  indi- 
cating the  most  direct  way  of  reaching  it.  Note  on  the  globe  the 
location  of  Asia  relative  to  the  United  States,  to  the  four  hemi- 
spheres, to  the  temperature  belts,  to  the  oceans,  to  Europe. 

Size.  (Use  map  of  hemispheres  and  of  Asia.)  Note  the  size 
of  Asia  relative  to  all  other  grand  divisions,  to  North  America  in 
particular,  and  to  the  United  States,  making  comparisons  by  a 
visual  device  and  numerically  by  consulting  statistics.  Compare 
in  a  similar  way  its  great  highland  region,  its  great  low  plains, 
its  important  rivers  and  river  valleys,  in  number  and  extent,  with 
those  of  North  America.  Compare  its  population  with  that  of 
the  United  States  and  of  Europe.  Work  for  appreciation  of  the 
vastness  of  this  wonderful  continent. 

IMPORTANT  COXTNTRBES 
JAPAir 

Approach  through  familiar  experiences  of  pupils  with  Japanese 
persons  and  objects.  Let  the  children  take  in  imagination  the 
customary  journey  by  way  of  Chicago  and  San  Francisco  or 
Seattle  to  Yokohama.  Give  one  or  two  illustrated  lessons,  either 
by  lantern  or  postcards,  on  Yokohama  or  Tokyo,  giving  char- 
acteristic street  scenes  and  calling  attention  to  the  diversity  in 
costume  and  reasons  therefor,  to  the  methods  of  building  houses, 
and  the  kinds  of  transportation.  Note  the  size  of  the  largest 
city  as  compared  with  New  York,  and  classify  it  among  the 
world's  great  seaports. 

Map  study.  Call  attention  to  the  three  large  islands,  and 
measure  their  extent  from  north  to  south  and  note  the  significance 
of  this  fact.    Note  inland  sea  and  the  surrounding  waters. 

Country  life.  Let  the  pupils  examine  pictures  of  rice  terraces, 
vegetable  gardens,  pleasure  gardens,  the  Japanese  farmer  at 
work.  From  these  pictures  and  from  printed  descriptions  make 
appropriate   deductions   as   to   the   thrift,    industrv.   cleanliness, 


74 

artistic  sense  and  economic  standing  of  the  Japanese  country 
people.  Have  the  pupils  note  the  absence  of  beasts  of  burden  and 
the  significance  of  this  fact. 

Give  especial  attention  to  the  natural  resources  and  products 
of  Japan,  and  to  the  leading  occupations,  means  of  subsistence 
and  characteristics  of  the  Japanese  people  as  a  whole.  As  a  class 
problem  the  pupils  could  find  out  the  leading  exports  to  and  im- 
ports from  the  United  States;  also  the  relative  proportion  of  the 
rural  and  city  population,  to  determine,  if  possible,  whether  the 
Japanese  are  chiefly  an  agricultural  or  a  manufacturing  people. 
As  a  special  problem,  a  group  of  pupils  could  make  a  brief  study 
of  the  way  in  which  Japanese  boys  and  girls  are  educated  and 
report  upon  their  readings. 

Qovernment.  Note  the  similarity  to  a  government  in  Europe. 
Let  the  pupils  note  the  population  of  the  country  in  relation  to 
its  area  and  deduce  the  bearing  of  this  fact  on  the  foreign  policy 
of  Japan.  Also  have  them  discuss  the  past  relations  between  the 
United  States  and  Japan  and  the  reasons  therefor. 

CHINA 

Approach  through  pupil's  experience  with  Chinese  objects  and 
persons.  Take  in  imagination  the  journeys  from  Yokohama  to 
Pekin.  Study  Pekin  pictures  of  street  scenes,  of  the  city  walls, 
and  of  the  entrance  to  the  "forbidden  city;"  also  pictures  of 
Canton,  Shanghai,  Mukden. 

Map  study.  Pupils  should  locate  the  Chinese  Empire  on  the 
map  of  Asia.  Note  the  states  that  touch  it;  the  provinces  that 
compose  it,  with  the  significance  of  their  names;  the  three  large 
rivers  traversing  it ;  and  the  location  of  the  cities  studied.  Let 
the  children  also  note  the  extent  from  north  tO'  south  of  the 
Ciiinese  Empire  with  the  significant  deduction.  Study  by  means 
of  selected  mounted  pictures  the  ways  and  means  of  communica- 
tion and  transportation  in  the  Chinese  Empire;  namely,  on 
river,  canal,  road ;  by  carrier,  cart,  wheelbarrow ;  arriving  at 
some  worth-while  conclusions.  Have  the  pupils  see  the  diversity 
in  surface  and  climate  of  this  immense  country  by  comparing 
carefully  selected  pictures  of  the  landscape  in  the  eastern  delta 
region,  the  hilly  middle  region,  the  mountainous  western  and 
northern  regions,  noting  the  intensity  of  cultivation,  primitive 
methods  of  farming,  methods  of  irrigation,  character  of  roads, 


75 

deforested  conditions  of  mountains,  structure  of  bridges  and 
buildings.  A  picture  study  of  the  fruit  trees  and  other  vegeta- 
tion of  China  would  be  profitable. 

Emphasize  the  natural  resources,  products,  occupations,  popu- 
lation and  area  by  a  plan  similar  to  that  followed  in  dealing 
with  Japan.  As  a  special  problem  a  group  of  pupils  should 
study  the  changes  in  government,  transportation,  schools  and 
customs  now  going  on  in  China. 

INDIA  AND   FARTHER  INDIA 

Introduce  by  reference  to  the  object  of  Columbus'  voyage,  to 
familiar  associations  and  to  the  routes  by  which  Americans 
travel  to  this  region.  Study  pictures  of  Calcutta,  Bombay, 
Delhi  and  Singapore;  also  pictures  of  Hindu  villages,  jungle 
scenes,  rice  fields,  Hindu  temples,  the  beautiful  valley  of  the 
Ganges,  a  typical  landscape  of  the  interior  upland  country  and 
of  the  Himalayan  mountain  region.  Call  attention  to  Mount 
Everett,  the  highest  peak  in  the  world.  Center  problems  around 
natural  resources,  products,  occupations,  caste  system,  economic, 
political  and  intellectual  condition  of  the  people.  Compare 
population  of  India  with  that  of  the  United  States  and  with  that 
of  China.  In  studying  the  principal  wild  animals  of  this  region 
note  the  peculiarities  of  the  animal  life,  and  that  it  constitutes 
one  of  the  five  great  animal  regions  of  the  world.  Note  the 
natural  boundary  separating  this  animal  region  from  the  others. 

THE  NEAR  EAST 

Asia  ]\Iinor,  Syria,  Mesopotamia,  Armenia,  Persia  and 
i  Arabia.  Introduce  by  reference  to  Bible  history  and  the  be- 
1  ginnings  of  civilized  peoples.  Have  pictures  of  Jerusalem, 
!  Joppa,  Antioch,  Babylon,  Palmyra,  Ephesus  and  famous  ruins, 
I  taken  from  ancient  history;  also  typical  pictures  of  shepherd 
,  life,  of  travel,  of  Bedouin  life.  Study  the  racial,  political, 
i  economic  and  educational  condition  of  this  whole  region,  trac- 
j  ing  the  relation  of  each  to  the  Turkish  government.  As  an 
I  additional  problem  allow  a  pupil  or  group  of  pupils  to  draw  a 
i  map  of  this  region,  locating  the  Tigris.  Euphrates  and  Jordan 
I  rivers;  the  Sea  of  Galilee  and  the  Dead  Sea;  the  cities  of 
i  Antioch,  Damascus,  Jerusalem,  Bethlehem,  Tyre,  Joppa.  Tarsus. 
!  Ephesus.  Troy,  Mecca,  Bagdad,  and  present  it  to  class  by  giving 
I  an  interesting  fact  about  each  river,  city,  country  or  sea. 


76 


STBEBIA 


Introduce  by  reference  to  the  Trans-Siberian  railroad  and 
the  frontier  region  of  Russia,  calHng  attention  to  the  analogy 
between  going  to  the  Far  West  in  America  and  going  to  Siberia 
or  the  Far  East  in  the  Russian  Empire.  Note  the  length  of  the 
Trans-Siberian  railroad  and  its  terminal  points ;  also  its  significi- 
cance  for  Russian  development,  Russian  influence  in  the  Far 
E^st,  American  trade  with  Russia,  and  settlement  of  Siberia. 
Study  pictures  of  cities  along  the  Trans-Siberian  railroad  of 
Tomsk,  Irkutsh,  Vladivostok  and  Harbin;  also  pictures  of  the 
forest  land,  river,  plain,  upland  and  Tundra  zones  of  Siberia. 
Study  the  natural  resources,  climatic  peculiarities,  extent  of  the 
region,  relati\'e  density  of  population.  In  this  connection  have 
certain  pupils  note  the  relative  area  of  the  entire  Russian  Empire 
as  compared  with  the  rest  of  Europe,  the  United  States,  North 
America. 

PROBLEMS  ON  ASIA 

1.  Why  have  the  peoples  of  Europe  advanced  more  in  civiliza- 
tion than  those  of  Asia? 

2.  Why  is  Japan  the  only  country  of  Asia  numbered  among 
the  world  powers? 

3.  Why  does  Japan  desire  to  control  China? 

4.  Japan  successfully  imitates  many  of  the  manufacturing  in- 
dustries of  other  nations,  and  sells  the  product  cheaper  than  the 
other  nations.     How  can  she  do  this? 

5.  Why  have  so  comparatively  few  British  (soldiers  and 
officials)  managed  to  keep  under  control  the  many  natives  of 
India? 

6.  How  does  India  support  so  vast  a  population  ? 

7.  Which  is  of  more  value  to  Great  Britain,  India  or  Canada? 
What  relations  exist  between  the  control  of  these  two? 

8.  Why  are  there  so  many  famines  and  plagues  in  India? 
Suggest  some  remedies  for  these. 

9.  Of  what  particular  value  to  India  and  Emgland  is  the  Suez 
Canal  ? 

Minimum  number  of  cities  to  be  studied  in  connection  with 
the  geography  of  the  country  in  which  they  are  located  (see 
suggestions  in  fifth  grade  outline)  :  Jerusalem,  Yokohama, 
Tokyo,  Pekin,  Canton,  Singapore,  Bombay,  Calcutta. 


77 

AFB.ICA 

Orientation.  Let  the  pupils  indicate  the  direction  of  Africa 
from  North  America  and  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  if  they 
were  to  set  out  in  a  freighter  from  New  York  harbor  and  steer 
in  a  southeasterly  direction,  the  first  land  they  would  encounter 
would  be  Africa.  Have  them  mention  facts  in  our  history  and 
objects  or  exj^eriences  in  our  daily  life  that  relate  us  to  Africa. 

Study  on  the  map  of  the  hemispheres  the  relation  of  Africa 
to  Europe,  to  Asia,  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  to  North  America,  to 
South  America.  Have  the  pupils  take  imaginary  trips,  starting 
from  New  York  in  each  case,  up  the  Nile  River  and  the  Congo 
River,  using  mounted  pictures  and  descriptions  from  the  geo- 
graphical readers  and  magazines.  Note  the  interruptions  in 
navigation  in  each  case  and  the  general  cause;  also  the  effect 
of  this  physical  peculiarity  oi  Africa  upon  the  early  exploration 
and  settlement  of  that  continent  by  Europeans.  It  would  be 
profitable  to  have  the  story  of  the  lives  of  Livingston  and 
Stanley  told  to  class  by  certain  members.  As  a  second  optional 
problem,  pupils  could  take  in  imagination  a  journey  by  caravan 
across  the  Sahara  Desert,  noting  the  nature  of  the  country,  the 
purpose  and  method  of  such  journeys,  the  occupations  and 
characteristics  of  the  people  dwelling  in  this  region. 

Physical  characteri.stics.  Help  the  pupils  to  distinguish  by 
means  of  pictures  and  descriptions  these  physical  regions :  ( i ) 
the  Mediterranean  seacoast,  (2)  the  Great  Desert  region,  (3) 
the  Grassy  Plain  region,  (4)  the  Jungle  region,  (5)  the  Veldt 
region.  Let  them  make  a  brief  study  of  the  plant  and  animal 
life  peculiar  to  each  of  these  regions.  A  group  of  pupils  may 
study  a  physical  map  of  Africa  with  respect  to  elevation  and 
report  to  class,  noting  the  relative  heights  of  the  highest  African 
mountains  as  compared  with  those  of  other  continents ;  also  the 
relative  size  of  the  Nile  and  Congo  as  compared  with  the 
Mississippi  and  the  Amazon. 

Races,  Let  the  pupils  distinguish  at  least  three  distinct  physi- 
cal types  of  people  inhabiting  Africa  and  make  a  study  of  the 
race  that  takes  its  name  from  the  continent,  as  to  methods  of  sub- 
sistence, shelter,  dress  and  government. 

European  possessions.  As  a  class  project,  draw  a  map  of 
Africa,  indicating  by  means  of  a  color  scheme  the  territory  con- 
trolled by  France,  England,  Italy,  Belgium.  Germany  and  Portu- 


78 


gal,  and  the  part  that  is  indeiDendent  of  European  control ;    also 
the  location  and  names  of  the  four  cities  mentioned  below. 

Minimum  number  of  cities  to  be  studied  in  connection  with  the 
geography  of  the  country  in  which  they  are  located  (see  sugges- 
tion given  in  fifth  grade  outline)  :  Cairo,  Tunis,  Johannesburg, 
Cajje  Town. 

AUSTRALIA  AND  NEW  ZEALAND 

Orientation.  As  an  approach  to  the  study  of  Australia  certain 
pupils  should  be  called  upon  to  indicate  the  way  to  get  from  New 
Jersey  to  Australia.  Let  them  locate  Australia  on  the  globe  and 
note  its  position  relative  to  the  United  States,  and  to  New  York 
City  in  particular. 

Make  a  study  of  Australia's  position  on  a  map  of  the  eastern 
hemisphere  relative  to  Japan,  the  Philippines,  the  Suez  Canal, 
Guam,  the  Samoan  Islands. 

A  group  of  pupils  should  study  the  history  of  Australia,  touch- 
ing on  its  discovery,  the  early  use  made  of  it  by  England,  reasons 
for  its  subsequent  development,  and  its  present  importance  to  the 
British  Empire. 

Develop  the  topics  of  natural  resources,  occupations,  leading 
productions  and  exports  to  and  imports  from  the  United  States. 
Pupils  should  ascertain  the  facts  in  regard  to  the  schools  and 
government  of  Australia,  noting  resemblances  to  or  difTerences 
from  those  of  the  United  States  and  Canada.  As  a  special  pro- 
ject pupils  could  find  two  reasons  why  Australia  constitutes  a 
distinct  animal  and  plant  life  region.  They  could  also  make  a 
study  of  at  least  two  animals  and  two  trees  of  this  region  that 
are  unique. 

Stimulate  pupils  to  find  out  the  chief  physical  attractions  of 
New  Zealand,  and  why  that  colony's  government  is  interesting 
to  the  rest  of  the  world. 

Minimum  number  of  cities  to  be  studied  in  connection  with  the 
geography  of  the  country  in  which  they  are  located :  Melbourne, 
Sydney. 

FEOBI^MS  ON  AFRICA  AND  AUSTRALIA 

1.  Why  is  Africa  called  the  "Dark  Continent"? 

2.  Why  has  Africa  never  been  fully  explored? 

3.  What  effect  would  railroads  across  the  Sahara  Desert  have 
on  the  caravan  trade?  Would  the  building  of  railroads  be  a 
profitable  investment? 


79 

4-  Why  is  the  term  "Ship  of  the  Desert"  a  good  one  to  apply 
to  the  camel  ? 

5.  Which  is  the  more  valuable  acquisition  of  territory  by  Great 
Britain,  Australia  or  South  Africa? 

6.  Why  is  Egypt  called  the  "Gift  of  the  Nile"  ? 

7.  If  you  had  it  in  your  power  how  could  you  arrange  the 
mountains  of  Australia  so  as  to  give  more  rainfall  to  a  wider 
area  in  that  continent? 

8.  In  what  ways  are  the  plants  of  Australia  adapted  to  the 
scanty  rainfall? 

9.  Why  is  sheep  raising  so  profitable  an  occupation  in 
Australia? 

10.  Why  are  the  animals  of  Australia  so  different  from  those 
of  any  other  continent? 

SUPPLEMENTARY  AND  REFERENCE  BOOKS  FOR  PUPILS 
AND  TEACHER 

GEADE  VI 

Allen,  rsi.  B.     Industrial  Studies:     Asia.     Ginn,  Boston 

Allen,  N.  B.     Industrial  Studies:     Europe.     Ginn,  Boston 

Carpenter,  F.  G.     Africa.     American  Book  Co.  N.  Y. 

Carpenter,  F.  G.     Asia.     American  Book  Co.  N.  Y. 

Carpenter,  F,  G.     Australia  and  the  Islands  of  the  Sea.     American  Book 

Co.  N.  Y. 
Carpenter,  F.  G.     Europe.     American  Book  Co.  N.  Y. 
Carpenter,    F.   G.     Industrial   Readers.      (How   the   World   is   Fed.     How 

the  World  is  Clothed.     How  the  World  is  Housed.)     American  Book 

Co.  N.  Y. 
Coe,  F.  E.    Oui  American  Neighbors.     Silver  Burdette,  N.  Y. 
Dunton,  Lorkin.     The  World  and  Its  People.     Silver  Burdette,  N.  Y. 
Kidd,   Dudley.     South  Africa    (in   Peeps   at  Many  Lands   Series).     Mac- 

millan,  N.  Y. 
Monroe,  W.  S.  and  Buckbee,  Anna.     Europe.     Harper,  N.  Y. 
Singleton,  Esther.     Famous  Cities  of  Modern  Europe.     Dodd,  N.  Y. 
Willard,  M.  F.     Along  Mediterranean  Shores.     Silver  Burdette,  N.  Y. 


GRADE  VII 

SOUTH  AMERICA,  MEXICO,  CENTRAL  AMERICA, 
CANADA,  ETC. 

SUGGESTED  TIHE   ALLOTMENT 

First  Half 

South  America — 10  weeks 

Continent  study — 2  weeks 

Brazil — 2  weeks 

Argentina — 2  weeks 

Chile — 2  weeks 

Uruguay  and  Paraguay — 2  days 

Venezuela  and  Guianas — 3  days 

Other  countries — 1  week 
Mexico  and  Central  America — 3  weeks 

Canada,  Nova  Scotia,  New  Brunswick  and  Newfoundland — 4  weeks 
Princioles  of  geography — 2  weeks 

Second  Half 

World  Review — 19  weeks 

First  Half 
SOUTH   AMERICA 

Introduction.  See  suggestions  on  North  America,  page  49. 
Identify  this  new  grand  division  by  calling  into  the  conscious- 
ness of  the  pupils  their  experience  with  well-known  South 
American  products  and  allusions  to  this  region  in  their  general 
reading  or  in  stories  they  have  heard.  Locate  the  region  in 
imagination  by  pointing  toward  it  and  by  indicating  the  steamer 
connections  and  the  possible  railroad  connections.  Locate  on  the 
globe  its  relative  position  east  and  west  as  compared  with  North 
America  and  its  relative  position  in  the  zones,  drawing  the  ap- 
propriate inferences.  Suggest  the  significance  of  the  Panama 
Canal  with  regard  to  the  development  of  South  America. 

Climate.  Have  pupils  study  the  map  and  draw  inferences  as 
to  the  range  and  the  diversity  of  climate  by  noting  the  great 
extent  of  this  division  from  north  to  south  and  by  recalling  the 
analagous  conclusion  in  the  case  of  North  America.  Have  three 
pictures  of  landscapes,  one  from  Brazil,  one  from  Central  Argen- 

6  GEOG  (81) 


82 

tine,  and  one  from  Southern  Patagonia,  to  corroborate  the  above 
fact'.  Connect  the  equatorial  region  with  the  direct  or  practically 
vertical  rays  of  the  sun  and  the  effect  of  this  on  the  temperature 
of  this  region.  Call  into  play  the  experience  of  the  pupils  with 
the  analagous  daily  difference  in  temperature  brought  about  by 
the  change  in  slant  of  the  sun's  rays  from  sunrise  to  sunset. 
Connect  high  average  temperature  with  amount  of  rainfall  and 
the  apparent  annual  north  and  south  movement  of  the  sun  in 
the  heavens  with  the  seasons.  Characterize  the  seasons  of  the 
torrid  zone.  Have  pupils  note  the  obvious  connection  between 
the  prevalence  of  heat  and  moisture  and  abundant  plant  life. 
Illustrate  with  hothouse.  Show  pictures  of  jungles  to  corrobo- 
rate the  conclusion.  Compare  climate  of  eastern  equatorial  sec- 
tion with  that  of  the  western  section. 

Plant  life  peculiar  to  South  America.  If  possible  get  the  ma- 
terial before  the  pupils  by  means  of  carefully  chosen  and  syste- 
matically arranged  mounted  pictures  of  the  royal  palm,  the 
banana  palm,  the  cocoanut  palm,  the  coffee  tree,  the  rubber  tree, 
mahogany  and  rosewood,  the  tall  grasses  of  the  Lianos,  sugar 
cane,  cocoa  tree,  the  jungle  growth,  particularly  the  great  creep- 
ing plants.  Use  these  mounted  pictures  in  teaching  the  plant 
life  of  the  different  sections  of  South  America. 

Animal  life  peculiar  to  South  America.  Follow  plan  as  indi- 
cated above,  by  carefully  selected  mounted  pictures  of  birds  such 
as,  condor,  rhea,  penguin;  of  wild  animals  such  as  armadillo, 
peccary,  anteater,  tapir,  cougar;  of  the  domesticated  llama,  and 
of  the  boa-constrictor  and  some  of  the  venomous  reptiles  and 
insects  of  the  tropical  region.  In  the  case  of  each  of  these  animals 
the  pupils  should  find  out  whether  or  not  it  is  of  value  to  man 
or  injurious  to  him  and  in  what  way. 

Main  physical  features  of  South  America.  Compare  the  main 
physical  features  of  South  America  with  those  of  North  America 
by  means  of  physical  maps,  noting  shape,  size,  number  and 
arrangement  of  great  highland  regions  and  great  valleys.  By 
means  of  mounted  pictures  or  the  stereoscope,  study  the  Andes 
Mountains,  showing  carefully  selected  scenes  on  the  eastern  slope 
near  the  equator,  and  the  effect  on  vegetation  of  change  in  alti- 
tude. Compare  the  Andes  with  the  Rock>'  Mountains  as  to  alti- 
tude, relative  location  in  the  respective  grand  divisions,  trend, 
presence  of  volcanoes,   relation  to  transcontinental  travel  and 


83 

transportation,  effect  on  climate.  Study  by  means  of  pictures  and 
map  the  three  great  valleys  of  South  America  and  the  Amazon 
River  in  particular,  comparing  the  latter  with  the  Mississippi. 
Call  attention  to  the  remarkably  slight  fall  in  the  last  1800  miles 
of  its  course  and  the  effect  of  this  condition. 

Map  drawing.  Have  each  pupil  draw  an  outline  map  of  South 
America  and  fill  in  details  as  follows : 

1.  The  three  highland  and  the  three  lowland  regions 

2.  The  equator  and  the  tropic  of  capricom 

3.  The  meridian  of  Washington 

4.  The  three  great  river  systems 

5.  Block  out  in  color  Brazil,  Argentine  Republic  and  Chile 

6.  Indicate  the  boundaries  of  the  other  states 

7.  Indicate   the   capital    cities   of   the   three   important   countries,   and 

three  other  important  cities 

Civilization.  In  order  to  stimulate  interest  have  the  pupils  note 
the  races  that  make  up  the  inhabitants  of  South  America  and  the 
proportionate  part  that  the  people  of  European  extraction  form 
of  the  whole  population;    also  their  relative  importance. 

Occupations.  Study  with  the  aid  of  pictures  the  coffee,  rub- 
ber, mining  and  cattle  industries  and  river  and  railroad  trans- 
portation. Select  for  study  railroad  development,  schools, 
governments.  Center  a  series  of  lessons  around  one  of  the  fol- 
lowing subjects :  cattle  ranches,  coffee  plantations,  the  gathering 
of  rubber,  railroads  in  the  Andes,  pack  trains  of  llamas.  Mini- 
mum cities  to  be  studied  in  connection  with  the  geography  of 
the  country  in  which  they  are  located  (see  suggestions  in  fifth 
grade  outline)  :  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Montevideo,  Quito,  Buenos 
Aires,  Santiago,  Para. 

The  "A  B  C"  countries  of  South  America :  Argentine,  Brazil 
and  Chile.     Relative  importance  of  this  group. 

BBAZIL 

Have  the  pupils  recall  any  and  all  associations  they  may  have 
made  with  objects,  materials  and  products  of  Brazil.  Important 
steamer  connections  with  Brazil  and  sailing  routes  should  be 
noted.  Certain  pupils  should  look  up  the  story  of  the  discovery, 
first  exploration,  and  first  settlement  of  Brazil.  They  should 
note  the  significance  of  these  events  in  their  relation  to  the 
national  language  of  Brazil.     Attention  should  be  called  to  the 


84 

three  large  racial  groups  composing  the  population  of  Brazil. 
These  groups  could  be  arranged  in  order  of  numerical  size  and 
in  order  of  importance  to  the  life  and  development  of  the  nation. 

Ports  of  entry.  Para,  Bahia,  Pemambuca,  Santos  and  Rio 
de  Janeiro.  Procure  pictures  of  at  least  three  of  these,  including 
the  capital  city,  and  let  the  pupils  note  what  seems  to  be  the 
most  important  geographical  fact  in  connection  with  each  of  the 
five. 

Map  study.  As  a  part  of  the  map  study  pupils  should  locate 
the  abo\e  mentioned  cities.  They  should  note  the  position  of 
Brazil  with  respect  to  the  tropics;  also  its  surface  makeup  or 
contour.  The  annual  rainfall  record  for  Brazil  should  be  com- 
pared with  that  of  New  Jersey.  The  pupils  should  search  out 
the  three  large  factors  that  account  for  the  great  rainfall  in 
Brazil.  Pupils  should  be  encouraged  to  discover  from  the  map 
and  from  descriptions  four  important  results  of  the  great  rain-  ^, 
fall  bearing  on  transportation,  vegetation,  animal  life  and  dis-  | 
tribution  of  population. 

Occupations.  Seventh  grade  pupils  should  be  able  to  deduce 
from  such  information  as  they  now  possess  what  the  leading 
occupations  of  the  people  of  Brazil  are.  As  special  problems 
they  should  make  a  study  of  the  rubber  or  coffee  industry,  noting 
the  important  steps  from  tree  to  export,  and  forming  con- 
clusions as  to  the  relative  importance  of  these  industries  to 
Brazil  as  compared,  for  example,  to  wheat  growing  in  our  own 
country. 

Institutions.  The  form  of  government  of  Brazil  should  be 
compared  with  that  of  the  United  States.  Have  a  group  of 
pupils  report  upon  such  questions  as  the  length  of  the  term  of 
office  of  the  chief  executive,  the  extent  of  the  suffrage,  the  size 
of  the  army  and  navy  and  similar  questions.  Let  them  also 
ascertain  whether  or  not  Brazil  has  a  public  school  system  that 
gives  all  the  children  a  common  school  education. 

ARGENTINA 

Before  using  globe  or  map  let  the  class  arrive  at  some  con- 
clusion as  to  the  two  possible  lines  of  approach  to  Argentina 
from  the  United  States. 

Globe  and  map  study.  Locate  Argentina  on  the  globe,  not- 
ing its  relation  to  the  western  hemisphere,  to  Brazil,  to  the  great 


85 

surface  divisions  of  South  America,  and  to  the  great  com- 
mercial routes  of  the  world.  Pupils  should  raise  the  question 
whether  the  immediate  effect  of  the  use  of  the  Panama  Canal 
will  be  to  help  or  retard  the  trade  development  of  Argentina. 
Let  the  pupils  note  by  actual  measurement  on  the  globe  the  rela- 
tive distances  of  Buenos  Aires  from  New  York  and  from  Liver- 
pool and  the  relative  distances  of  Cape  Horn  and  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  from  the  South  Pole  and  draw  out  the  significance  of 
each  of  these  comparisons. 

Occupations.  Emphasize  the  two  leading  occupations  of 
Argentina  and  compare  the  products  of  this  country  with  those 
of  the  United  States.  As  problems  for  study  let  certain  pupils 
report  upon  the  sugar  cane  and  grape  culture  of  the  North  and 
Northwest,  the  wheat  raising  of  the  central  region  and  the  sheep 
and  cattle  grazing  of  the  South  and  West.  Pictures  of  ranches 
and  ranch  life  showing  the  picturesque  costume  of  the  Guacos 
or  South  American  cowboys  should  be  studied.  An  effort  should 
be  made  by  the  teacher  to  help  the  pupils  get  a  feeling  for  the 
great  stretches  of  prairie  land  in  Argentina  for  the  vastness  of 
many  oi  its  ranches. 

In  connection  with  the  study  of  the  cattle  and  wheat  ranches 
the  fact  that  most  of  the  land  is  held  in  large  estates  by  a  com-- 
paratively  small  number  of  owners,  and  that  the  rest  of  the 
rural  inhabitants  of  these  regions  are  mere  workers  dependent 
upon  the  owners  for  employment  and  living,  should  be  dwelt 
upon,  especially  in  its  bearing  on  popular  government  and  the 
rule  of  the  majority.  Let  the  pupils  determine  two  good  reasons 
why  greatly  increased  trade  between  Eastern  United  States  and 
Argentina  would  be  very  beneficial  to  both  countries. 

Cities.  Pupils  should  locate  Buenos  Aires  and  compare  the 
population  of  this  city  with  that  of  Rio  de  Janeiro  and  with 
that  of  Chicago,  determining  the  probable  reasons  for  its  great 
size  as  compared  with  the  population  of  Argentina  as  a  whole. 
They  should  study  pictures  of  this  city,  noting  the  type  of  its 
dwellings,  the  attractiveness  of  its  streets  and  the  architectural 
beauty  of  its  public  buildings. 

People.  Pupils  should  ascertain  why  the  national  language  of 
Argentina,  as  well  as  that  of  nearly  all  the  other  countries  of 
South  America,  is  Spanish.  The  question  why  immigration  to 
Argentina  is  greater  than  that  to  any  other  South  American 


86 

country    is   worthy   of    study   and    may    lead    to    worth-while 
geographical  conclusions. 

CHILE 

Globe  and  map  study.  Pupils  should  determine  from  study 
of  the  glol>e  the  most  direct  route  from  New  York  to  Chile  and 
answer  for  themselves  the  probable  effect  on  the  trade  develop- 
ment of  Chile  from  the  use  of  the  Panama  Canal.  From  a 
study  of  a  physical  map  of  South  America  a  group  of  pupils 
could  ascertain  by  measurement  the  maximum  width  and  the 
average  width  of  Chile,  and  the  maximum  altitude  and  the 
average  altitude  of  its  surface.  Attention  should  be  called  to 
the  existence  of  the  desert  strip  on  the  western  slope  of  the 
Andes  in  Chile  and  farther  north,  and  the  reasons  for  such 
condition. 

Occupations.  A  very  valuable  insight  into  the  occupations 
could  be  secured  through  a  study  of  the  nitrate  industry,  includ- 
ing its  commercial  value  in  the  United  States  and  Europe. 
Other  occupation  problems  are:  ascertaining  the  importance  of 
the  grazing  industry  in  Chile,  comparing  it  witli  that  of  Argen- 
tina ;  comparing  the  agriculture  of  Chile  with  that  of  Argentina 
as  to  products  raised,  size  of  ranches,  condition  of  the  farm 
lalx)rers,  importance  of  irrigation;  and  showing  Chile's  rank  in 
manufacturing  among  South  American  countries. 

People.  The  people  of  Chile  are  sometimes  called  the 
"Yankees  of  South  America."  The  pupils  should  ascertain  of 
what  stock  the  people  of  Chile  consist  and  to  what  extent  immi- 
gration is  contributing  to  the  increase  in  population.  A  group 
of  pupils  should  make  a  report  as  to  why  Chile,  as  a  nation,  is 
classed  with  Argentina  and  Brazil  as  one  of  the  three  most  im- 
portant nations  of  South  America. 

Cities.  Pupils  should  locate  Santiago  and  Valparaiso  and  note 
the  most  important  fact  to  be  associated  with  each.  In  this  con- 
nection it  would  be  profitable  to  make  a  brief  study  of  the  Pacific 
coast  line  of  South  America,  comparing  it  with  the  Pacific  coast 
hne  of  North  .\merica  and  with  the  Atlantic  coast  line  of  North 
America,  deducing  from  this  study  appropriate  geographical 
conclusions. 


8; 

COLOMBIA,   PEETI,  BOLIVIA  ATSTD  ECVABOH 

The  significance  of  the  Panama  Canal  in  the  trade  develop- 
ment of  these  coimtries  should  be  noted.  Pupils  should  ascertain 
from  a  contour  map  the  prevailing  elevation  above  sea  level  and 
the  surface  of  these  countries,  and  compare  this  elevation  with 
that  of  the  highest  mountain  in  the  Appalachian  system.  Two 
staple  food  products  of  America  had  their  origin  in  this  plateau. 
One  or  more  pupils  should  read  up  and  report  on  agriculture 
among  the  ancient  Peruvians  and  upon  the  crops  and  methods 
of  tilling  the  soil  as  practiced  by  the  present  day  Peruvian 
Indians.  Attention  should  be  called  to  the  mean  annual  tempera- 
ture of  this  plateau  by  comparing  it  with  that  of  the  Amazon 
valley  lying  in  the  same  latitude.  The  pupils  should  draw  appro- 
priate conclusions  as  to  effect  of  altitude  and  latitude  upon  climate 
and  vegetation.  The  story  of  Pizarro's  conquest  of  Peru,  with 
its  consequences  to  the  nations  of  this  region,  would  be  opportune. 

Occupations.  A  knowledge  of  the  occupations  should  be  ob- 
tained through  a  study  of  the  leading  articles  of  export  from  this 
region,  and  through  an  investigation  into  the  stages  of  develop- 
ment of  agriculture,  mining,  manufactures,  transportation. 

Cities.  The  pupils  should  be  able  to  locate  Bogota,  Lima, 
Quito,  Guayaquil,  and  associate  one  important  fact  with  each. 

People.  As  a  special  problem,  pupils  could  find  out  the  ap- 
proximate proportions  of  the  population  of  this  region  that  are 
of  Indian  origin  and  of  European  origin;  also  the  status  of 
public  education  in  these  countries. 

VEITEZVELA  ASTD  THE  GVIANAS 

These  states  should  be  located  and  discussed  with  respect  to 
advantages  or  disadvantages  of  location  and  climate.  Venezuela 
was  one  of  the  earliest  parts  of  South  America  to  be  frequented 
by  Europeans,  yet  it  has  not  kept  pace  in  development  with  the 
"A  B  C"  countries,  for  example.  The  pupils  should  be  encour- 
aged to  deduce  at  least  one  good  geographical  reason  for  this. 
The  Guiana  Colonies  should  be  studied  by  noting  the  countries 
to  which  they  respectively  belong  and  by  noting  what  use  these 
countries  have  made  of  their  possessions.  Certain  groups  of 
pupils  should  report  upon  the  mining  f>ossibilities  of  these  coun- 
tries, and  the  chief  articles  of  trade  of  both  Venezuela  and  the 
Guianas. 


imTTGUAY  AND  PAKAGTIAT 

These  countries  should  be  studied  in  their  trade  with  Argen- 
tina and  Brazil  respectively.  The  importance  of  the  Plata  and 
Paraguay  rivers  to  the  development  of  these  countries  should  be 
brought  out.  A  knowledge  of  the  occupations  of  the  people  and 
of  the  products  of  these  countries  could  readily  be  brought  out 
by  a  study  of  the  two  important  exports.  Pupils  should  locate 
Asuncion  and  Montevideo  and  associate  an  important  fact  with 
each  city. 

PROBLEMS  ON  SOUTH  AMERICA 

1.  Show  in  what  respects  North  America  and  South  America 
are  alike  in  surface  features. 

2.  Has  North  America  or  South  America  the  advantage  in 
regard  to  coast-line?  climate? 

3.  Show  whether  or  not  Brazil  will  likely  rival  the  United 
States  in  importance  in  the  future. 

4.  Why  is  northern  Brazil  not  more  thickly  settled? 

5.  Why  is  Argentina  the  most  progressive  country  of  South 
America  ? 

6.  Why  is  Buenos  Aires  so  large  a  city  ? 

7.  How  do  you  account  for  the  variety  of  products  raised  in 
the  tropical  Andean  countries? 

8.  A  boat  built  in  Glasgow,  Scotland,  carries  passengers  on 
Lake  Titicaca.    How  did  it  get  there? 

9.  How  much  shorter  is  the  trip  from  New  York  to  Val- 
paraiso, Chile,  by  way  of  the  Panama  Canal  than  by  way  of 
Cape  Horn? 

10.  If  you  were  expecting  to  emigrate  to  South  America  in 
what  country  would  you  settle?    Why? 

11.  How  would  it  be  an  advantage  to  the  people  of  South 
America  if  the  smaller  countries,  such  as  Paraguay  and  Uruguay, 
would  unite? 

MEXICO,  CENTRAL   AMERICA,  CANADA,  NOVA   SCOTIA, 
NEWFOUNDLAND   AND   NEW   BRUNSWICK 

The  children  should  have  their  attention  directed  to  the  im- 
portance of  these  countries,  as  suggested  in  the  work  of  the  fifth 
grade.  From  their  fonner  geography  experience  the  pupils  of 
the  seventh  grade  ought  to  be  able  to  formulate  a  series  of  ques- 


89 

tions  or  problems  about  each  country.  These  problems  should 
emphasize  in  what  ways  the  products,  industries  and  people  of 
the  United  States  have  influence  upon  the  people  of  these  coun- 
tries ;  in  what  way  the  products,  industries  and  people  of  Mexico, 
Central  America,  Nova  Scotia,  Canada,  Newfoundland  and  New 
Brunswick  have  upon  us, 

MEXICO 

Pupils  should  obtain  an  idea  of  location  and  distance  from 
New  Jersey  by  tracing  trade  routes  by  water  and  by  land.  Near- 
ness to  southern  states  could  be  shown  by  noting  railway  connec- 
tions between  border  towns  in  Texas  and  important  towns  in 
Mexico.  Difficulties  of  travel  in  Mexico  could  be  shown  by  a 
report  of  a  member  of  the  class  upon  Colonel  Pershing's  recent 
expedition  into  Mexico.  A  knowledge  of  the  important  surface 
features  could  be  gained  in  connection  with  the  questions  raised 
by  this  report. 

Industries.  A  group  of  pupils  could  get  information  upon  the 
methods  of  farming  and  mining  obtaining  in  Mexico  and  com- 
pare them  with  those  of  the  United  States.  Bring  out  the  fact 
that  much  of  the  lack  of  advancement  in  agriculture  is  due  to 
the  great  arid  regions  as  well  as  to  the  lack  of  progress  in  the 
natives.  It  would  be  helpful  for  the  pupils  to  make  a  comparison 
of  the  values  and  difficulties  in  some  of  our  western  states.  Raise 
the  problem  of  the  industrial  isolation  of  Mexico  and  have  the 
pupils  show  how  this  affects  farming,  mining  and  commerce  in 
Mexico. 

Products.  A  group  of  pupils  should  make  a  list  of  the  most 
important  exports  and  imports  of  Mexico  and  show  why  the 
United  States  should  be  interested  in  the  development  of  Mexico's 
resources.  Minimum  cities  to  be  studied  in  connection  with  the 
geography  of  the  country  in  which  they  are  located  (see  sugges- 
tions given  in  fifth  grade  outline)  :    Mexico  City,  Vera  Cruz. 

People  and  government.  Indian  stock.  Let  some  pupil  make 
a  report  upon  the  early  settlement  of  Mexico,  showing  the 
difficulties  which  confronted  the  settlers  and  how  these  diffi- 
culties still  exert  an  influence.  It  would  be  profitable  to  show 
what  proportion  of  the  population  was  of  Indian  stock  and  the 
significance  of  such  proportion  to  the  progress  of  the  country. 
Show  how  a  lack  of  a  system  of  good  roads,  a  lack  of  a  system 


90 

of  waterways,  a  lack  of  thrift  and  a  lack  of  education  have  kept 
most  of  the  people  poor.  Bring  out  the  difficulties  of  a  stable 
government  in  Mexico  by  conclusions  drawn  from  the  many 
facts  discovered  in  a  study  of  the  geography  of  Mexico.  Let 
the  pupils  make  statements  as  to  the  industrial,  economic  and 
governmental  relations  that  ought  to  obtain  between  Mexico 
and  the  republics  of  North  America  and  South  America. 

^  CENTSAL  AHKEIOA 

Locate  Central  America  on  the  wall  map.  Determine  the 
imports  and  exports  to  the  United  States,  and  what  articles  we 
send  to  Central  America.  Let  the  pupils  see  the  significance  of 
the  Panama  Canal  to  the  trade  interests  of  Central  America. 
This  could  be  brought  out  best  by  a  special  report  of  given 
pupils  upon  the  possible  exports  and  imports  of  the  country  to 
the  United  States  and  other  countries. 

CAKADA 

A  valuable  approach  to  the  study  of  Canada  can  be  made 
through  its  early  settlement  by  the  French,  and  through  the 
later  period  when  the  territory  had  been  acquired  by  England. 
Its  position  as  a  part  of  North  America  and  its  close  physical 
relation  to  the  United  States  can  be  brought  out  by  a  study  of 
the  use  it  makes  of  the  Great  Lakes  and  the  St.  Lawrence  River. 

Its  progress  in  settlement  can  be  shown  by  the  great  nun> 
ber  of  our  farmer  people  who  have  gone  there  recently  to  occupy 
some  of  the  fertile  soil.  Pupils  should  know  something  of  the 
relative  rate  ©f  settlement  of  Canada  as  compared  with  the 
United  States,  and  some  possible  reasons  why  Canada  has  been 
developed  slowly. 

Industries.  In  studying  the  industries  of  Canada  the  teacher 
should  make  use  of  the  experience  of  the  children  with  reference 
to  the  great  wheat  regions,  the  great  lumber  regions,  the  great 
mining  regions,  and  the  fishing  grounds  of  the  United  States. 
The  method  in  which  each  of  these  industries  is  carried  on  is  in 
some  important  respects  similar  to  that  used  in  the  United 
States.  However,  there  is  an  added  interest  when  contrasts  be- 
tween the  methods  in  the  two  countries  are  made.  In  Canada, 
for  example,  the  lumber  industry  presents  more  difficulties  be- 
cause of  the  longer  winter,  the  hea\ner  snowfall,  the  less  favor- 


91 

able  transporting  facilities;  wheat  raising  presents  more  diffi- 
culties because  of  the  longer  winter  and  the  handicap  resulting 
from  the  fact  that  only  spring  wheat  is  raised  in  great  cjuantities ; 
greater  difficulties  obtain  in  the  mining  industries  because  of 
the  very  short  season  during  which  mining  is  possible  and 
because  of  the  great  cost  of  transporting  equipment  and  pro- 
visions. In  this  connection  pupils  should  be  encouraged  to  look 
for  points  in  which  these  industries  are  followed  to  better  advan- 
tage than  in  the  United  States. 

In  carrying  out  the  above  principles  the  pupils  will  have 
learned  all  important  climatic  facts  by  making  use  of  such  facts 
to  prove  or  disprove  the  propositions  advanced. 

In  this,  as  well  as  in  the  work  upon  the  industries,  there 
must  be  a  constant  tying  up  with  the  experiences  used  in  a  study 
of  the  climate  of  the  United  States. 

Products.  A  more  intensive  study  of  the  important  products 
than  that  resulting  from  the  foregoing  work  upon  industry  may 
be  carried  out  by  reference  to  the  leading  exports  and  imports 
of  Canada.  Provision  should  be  made  by  which  certain  groups 
of  pupils  make  reports  upon  (i)  the  chief  needs  of  Canada  as 
regards  an  outlet  for  her  increasing  raw  materials,  (2)  the  chief 
needs  of  Canada  with  respect  to  imports,  in  order  that  she  may 
develop  greater  industrial  efficiency.  If  such  reports  are  guided 
by  teacher,  and  presented  by  pupils  as  a  part  of  regular  work, 
they  will  give  the  boys  and  girls  of  this  grade  enough  usable 
experience  as  to  the  products  of  Canada. 

Minimum,  number  of  cities  which  should  be  studied  in  connec- 
tion with  the  geography  of  the  country  in  which  they  are  located 
(see  suggestions  given  in  fifth  grade  outline)  :  Montreal,  Quebec, 
Ottawa,  Toronto,  Vancouver. 

People  and  government.  Since  some  attention  was  given  to 
the  people  of  Canada  in  the  introductory  work,  added  emphasis 
can  best  come  through  reference  to  more  detailed  study  of  the 
early  history,  to  magazine  articles,  and  pamphlets,  showing 
recent  changes  in  the  types  of  settlers. 

A  study  of  the  government  of  Canada  should  include  a  com- 
parison of  the  general  government  with  (i)  that  of  Australia, 
in  order  to  show  England's  control;  and  (2)  that  of  the  United 
States,  in  order  to  show  relation  to  our  republic.  The  great 
development  of  the  people  of  Canada  could  be  brought  out  by 


92 

showing  their  allegiance  to  England,  and  the  effort  they  have 
put  forth  to  have  popular  education  extended  throughout  the 
Dominion. 

NOVA  SCOTIA,  NEW  BKUNSWICK  AND  NEWFOTTNDLAND 

The  geography  of  these  countries  should  be  learned  through 
a  study  of  their  chief  industries,  agriculture,  dairying,  mining, 
lumbering,  commerce  and  fishing.  In  talking  up  these  industries 
comparison  should  be  made  with  the  ways  in  which  they  are 
carried  on  in  the  United  States.  As  another  approach  to  these 
countries  the  pupils  could  find  out  their  value  in  furnishing 
products  for  trade  with  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States. 

In  studying  the  climate — especially  of  Newfoundland — good 
opportunity  is  found  to  show  the  influence  of  the  gulf  stream. 

Halifax  should  be  stressed  as  an  important  shipping  center. 
Pupils  should  work  out  a  problem  which  would  connect  Halifax 
with  Newark;    one  that  would  connect  Halifax  with  Liverpool. 

PRINCIPLES  OF  GEOGRAPHY 

The  principles  of  geography  are  easily  discerned  and  clearly 
understood  only  in  their  applications.  The  thoughtful  teacher 
will  repeatedly  call  attention  to  many  of  these  principles  in  con- 
nection with  the  teaching  of  the  geographical  facts  suggested  by 
the  outlines  for  the  previous  grades.  A  more  mature  and  a  more 
thorough  comprehension  of  the  significance  of  certain  phases  of 
geographic  knowledge  and  of  certain  principles  governing  the 
interpretation  of  geographic  facts  can  be  attained  only  by  re- 
peated and  varied  organizations  of  subject  matter.  For  this 
reason  logical  treatments  of  such  topics  as  that  of  latitude  and 
longitude,  the  causes  of  the  change  of  the  seasons,  air  currents 
and  water  currents,  and  distributions  of  plant  and  animal  life, 
are  outlined  more  fully  and  apart  from  any  specific  applications 
to  particular  regions  in  order  that  they  may  be  comprehended 
as  thoroughly  and  as  fully  as  is  possible  with  seventh  grade 
pupils.  These  treatments  are  in  the  nature  of  summarized 
knowledge  which  has  been  brought  out  frequently  in  the  previous 
study  of  geography. 

Latitude  and  longitude.  Approach  this  subject  from  the 
standpoint  of  its  practical  use  to  navigators  by  raising  the  ques- 
tion as  to  how  a  vessel  in  distress  at  sea  can  inform  other  vessels 


I 


93 

of  her  location?  Develop  with  the  class  the  idea  of  the  whole 
scheme  of  imaginar>'  circles,  illustrating  with  the  globe.  Lead 
to  the  significance  of  the  derivation  of  "meridian" — the  midday 
line.  Have  the  pupils  distinguish  between  local  time  and  standard 
time.  Let  them  compute  the  relation  between  the  difference  in 
longitude  and  the  difference  in  local  time  of  two  places.  Upon 
a  map  of  the  United  States  the  pupils  can  construct  and  mark 
the  standard  time  zones  and  by  discussion  arrive  at  a  clear 
understanding  as  to  why  such  a  scheme  has  been  adopted.  The 
time-tables  of  some  transcontinental  lines  will  be  valuable  here 
as  supplementary  material. 

The  seasons.  Approach  this  general  topic  by  calling  attention 
to  the  succession  of  seasons  in  our  latitude  and  by  raising  the 
question  as  to  the  fundamental  cause.  Let  the  class  note  the 
sun's  apparent  movement  in  the  heavens  from  north  to  south 
from  June  21  to  December  21,  and  from  south  to  north  during 
the  other  six  months.  This  can  be  verified  by  simple  observa- 
tions. Relate  this  fact  to  the  fact  that  when  the  sun  is  farthest 
south  it  is  winter  and  the  days  are  shortest.  Raise  the  question 
as  to  why  these  two  facts  are  related.  Call  attention  to  the  vary- 
ing power  of  the  sun's  rays  during  the  course  of  a  day  from 
sunrise  to  sunset  and  the  obvious  reason  for  this.  Draw  the 
analogy  between  this  daily  variation  in  the  force  of  the  sun's 
rays  as  they  change  from  an  almost  horizontal  to  an  almost 
vertical  direction  with  respect  to  the  earth's  surface  and  the  cor- 
responding yearly  change  due  to  the  apparent  northerly  and 
southerly  movement  of  the  sun  in  the  heavens.  Proceed  to  show 
how  this  latter  change  in  the  position  of  the  sun  changes  the 
average  daily  temperature  in  our  latitude  through  the  course  of 
each  year  and  leads  us  to  distinguish  four  seasons.  The  reason 
for  the  lagging  of  the  seasons  behind  the  calendar  times  for 
them  should  be  made  clear.  Illustrate  with  the  globe  how  the 
vertical  rays  of  the  sun  fall  during  the  course  of  a  year  and  how 
the  oblique  rays  reach  only  as  far  as  the  Arctic  circle  on  the  22d 
of  December  but  reach  beyond  the  south  pole  to  every  point  of 
the  Antarctic  circle.  The  accompanying  ideas  of  the  sun  directly 
overhead  at  noonday  or  in  the  zenith  of  the  sky,  and  the  phe- 
nomena of  the  midnight  sun  and  of  the  continuous  polar  night 
or  twilight  should  be  made  clear. 


94 

As  an  optional  problem,  in  teaching  the  length  of  day  and 
night  in  the  regions  outside  of  the  torrid  zone,  have  the  pupils 
glean  facts  as  to  the  approximate  time  of  sunrise  and  sunset  on 
June  21  and  December  22  in  New  Jersey,  Mexico  City,  London 
and  Petrograd.  Make  the  reason  for  this  variation  clear  by  use 
of  the  globe.  Let  the  pupils  deduce  a  most  important  cause  of 
the  seasonal  changes  and  of  the  variation  in  length  of  day  and 
night.  Use  the  globe  to  illustrate  this  fact,  the  pupils  making 
the  demonstration. 

Air  currents  and  water  currents.  In  taking  up  the  logical 
study  of  air  currents  and  water  currents,  the  following  six  prin- 
ciples are  given  to  influence  the  teacher's  thinking.  If  she  has  a 
pupil  or  pupils  who  can  understand  the  simple  principles  named 
it  would  be  well  to  let  them  make  a  study  of  these  principles  and 
explain  to  class. 

1.  Liquids  and  gases  are  fluids  and  seek  the  lowest  possible 
level  under  the  constant  operation  of  the  force  of  gravity. 

2.  In  seeking  the  lowest  possible  level  under  the  force  of 
gravity^,  fluids  will  displace  solids  and  other  fluids  which  are 
lighter  volume  for  volume  than  themselves.  Examples :  water 
floats  wood ;  mercury  floats  iron ;  water  floats  kerosene ;  chlorine 
gas  floats  air. 

3.  Taking  into  account  the  fact  that  rise  in  temperature  ex- 
pands both  water  and  air  and  thus  makes  them  lighter  volume 
for  volume  than  other  water  and  air  at  a  lower  temperature,  we 
conclude  that  warmer  air  is  displaced  by  cooler  air. 

4.  The  sun  heats  some  substances  more  rapidly  than  others. 
Hence  in  the  same  length  of  time  under  the  sun's  rays  different 
substances  will  heat  to  different  degrees  of  temperature.  Ex- 
amples: cement  sidewalk  and  the  green  lawn;  plank  of  wood 
and  the  bare  earth ;  the  hard  road  and  the  grass-covered  field ; 
the  surface  of  a  lake  and  the  surrounding  land. 

5.  Different  substances  give  off  stored  up  heat  at  different  rates 
of  speed. 

6.  In  general,  land  heats  up  under  the  influence  of  the  sun's 
rays  more  rapidly  than  does  water  and  to  a  higher  degree  than 
water ;  also  it  cools  off  more  rapidly  than  water  and  to  a  lower 
degree  than  water. 

All  pupils  should  read  the  explanations  of  air  and  water  cur- 
rents given  in  a  good  textbook.     Simple  explanations  should  be 


95 

sought  and  application  made  within  the  pupil's  experience.  The 
teacher  could  raise  the  following  questions  :  Why  is  the  average 
daily  temperature  of  the  air  higher  in  the  tropics  than  in  the 
temperate  zones?  Why  is  the  average  daily  temperature  higher 
in  the  temperate  and  frigid  zones  in  August  than  in  January? 
Why  is  the  temperature  higher  about  one  or  two  o'clock  in  the 
day  than  at  five  o'clock  in  the  morning?  Pupils  should  then 
know  something  about : 

1.  The  effect  of  the  sun's  rays  when  they  are  most  nearly 
vertical.  Illustrate  both  by  longest  day  as  compared  with  shortest 
day  and  by  noonday  as  compared  with  early  morning. 

2.  The  effect  of  the  rays  of  the  sun  when  it  shines  continuously 
for  15  to  18  hours  of  the  day  in  the  high  latitudes  in  summer 
as  compared  with  their  effect  when  the  sun  shines  only  6  to  9 
hours  of  the  day  in  winter. 

3.  The  cumulative  effect  of  the  sun's  rays  when  it  continues 
to  shine  more  than  half  of  the  24  hours  of  the  day,  day  after 
day. 

4.  The  fact  that  land  surface  absorbs  solar  heat  rapidly  and 
so  absorbs  much  heat,  comparatively  speaking,  in  a  given  length 
of  time;  for  the  same  reason  it  radiates  heat  rapidly  and  gives 
off  much  heat  in  a  given  time.  Water  surface  absorbs  heat  much 
more  slowly  than  land  surface  and  gives  it  out  much  more  slowly 
than  land. 

The  foregoing  discussions,  illustrations  and  generalizations 
should  have  laid  in  the  minds  of  the  pupils  the  foundation  for 
comprehending  the  larger  movements  of  the  atmosphere  and  of 
the  ocean.  Study  the  globe,  keeping  in  mind  the  position  of  the 
sun  with  reference  to  the  equatorial  belt  and  the  mean  annual 
temperatures  as  one  goes  from  the  poles  to  the  equator.  These 
temperatures  might  be  written  for  every  15  degrees  of  latitude 
on  a  diagram. 

Pupils  who  are  especially  interested  could  stud}*,  as  an  optional 
problem,  a  hemisphere  map  of  the  winds  as  found  in  any  good 
textbook  to  note  the  direction  of  the  prevailing  winds  in  the 
different  zones  and  the  reasons  therefor  as  far  as  they  are  obvious. 
The  teacher  could  assist  them  by  explaining  how  the  irregularity 
in  the  trend  of  these  mountains,  the  great  interior  plains  and 
the  slopes  of  the  land  masses  as  a  whole,  are  disturbing  factors  in 
the  directions  of  the  winds :   also  how  the  vast  snowfields  of  the 


96 

North  and  the  barren  wastes  of  the  subtropical  regions  have 
tremendous  influence  in  disturbing  the  regularity  of  the  atmos- 
pheric circulation. 

The  winds  as  carriers  of  moisture.  Raise  the  question  as 
to  the  ultimate  source  of  all  the  water  that  falls  on  the  land 
surface  in  the  shape  of  rain  or  snow;  then  the  question  as  to 
how  it  is  carried.  Lands  favored  with  prevailing  winds  blowing 
from  the  ocean  should  have  an  adequate  rainfall.  Test  this 
proposition  by  examining  into  the  case  of  eastern  and  central 
United  States;  the  British  Isles  and  Europe;  northern  Africa; 
the  Pacific  coast  of  North  America  from  Alaska  to  San  Diego. 
Let  the  pupils  note  the  part  that  high  mountains  play  in  the 
production  and  conservation  of  rainfall;  in  the  prevention  of 
rainfall. 

Ocean  currents.  Introduce  by  calling  attention  to  the  facts 
that : 

1.  Prevailing  winds,  like  the  trade  and  prevailing  westerlies, 
by  pressure  and  friction  tend  to  move  the  surface  of  the  water 
in  the  direction  they  are  blowing. 

2.  The  contour  of  the  coast  line  or  the  outline  or  shape  of  the 
ocean  areas  deflect  the  ocean  currents  and  determine  their 
direction. 

Let  the  pupils  study  a  map  of  the  important  ocean  currents 
as  found  in  a  good  textbook  and  let  them  try  to  see  the  cause 
and  factors  determining  the  flow  of  the  gulf  stream  and  of  the 
Japan  current,  and  the  influences  of  these  streams. 

Distribution  of  plant  and  animal  life.  A  study  of  the  dis- 
tribution of  plant  and  animal  life  is  one  that  may  be  made  a 
very  profitable  part  of  the  general  world  review.  Keeping  in 
mind  the  locational  phase  of  plant  and  animal  life,  the  approach 
may  be  made  concrete  by  raising  the  question  as  to  what  plants 
and  animals  have  especial  value  for  human  existence.  One  pupil 
could  make  a  study  of  the  portions  of  the  earth's  surface  which 
are  covered  with  pine  forests,  and  thereby  bring  out  the  impor- 
tant uses  to  which  this  valuable  wood  may  be  put ;  another  could 
study  the  regions  where  deciduous  hard  woods  grow;  another 
the  wheat  growing  regions  of  the  globe ;  another  the  corn  grow- 
ing sections;  another  the  rice  growing  sections;  another  the 
potato  growing  sections.  Another  way  to  put  the  question  in 
regard  to  these  plant  and  animal  products  that  are  world-wide 


! 


97 

commodities  is  to  look  for  the  world's  source  of  supply  of  aay 
given  product  or  animal  and  to  connect  that  source  with  the 
places  where  the  product  is  used,  noting  the  way  in  which  the 
product  is  used  and  its  influence  upon  industry  and  human  life. 
In  studying  these  plants  and  animals  as  to  their  value  in 
human  existence,  teacher  and  pupils  must  consider  carefully  the 
factors  of  latitude,  altitude,  amount  of  moisture,  condition  of 
country  as  affected  by  timber  or  lack  of  timber.  These  factors 
become  concrete  when  it  is  shown  that  they  produce  different 
animals  and  plants  far  up  a  mountain  side  from  those  at  its 
base,  or  different  kinds  of  vegetables  in  one  climate  from  those 
in  another  climate.  The  important  consideration  is  one  of 
causal  relations,  which  are  to  be  seen  through  concrete  illustra- 
tion from  lesson  to  lesson. 

Second  Half 

WOELD   EEVTEW 

Special  emphasis  is  to  be  placed  upon : 

1.  United  States  and  New  Jersey  with  respect  to  important 
trade  facilities  within  their  own  borders,  and  the  most  important 
trade  relations  with  the  outside  world. 

2.  Economic,  governmental,  educational  and  social  progress 
of  given  countries  as  shown  in  (a)  the  way  in  which  the 
country  under  consideration  makes  for  stable  industrial  develop- 
ment whereby  all  may  secure  sustenance,  (b)  the  way  in  which 
its  government  protects  and  develops  its  citizens,  (c)  the  way 
in  which  it  provides  education  for  the  masses,  (d)  the  way  in 
which  its  standards  of  home  and  social  life  are  maintained. 

The  purpose  of  the  world  review  is  to  guide  the  pupils  in  a 
general  survey  of  the  world  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  rela- 
tions of  its  various  .parts  to  our  own  country.  While  the  rela- 
tions suggested  will  be  largely  economic,  and  should  be  made 
as  concrete  as  possible  by  calling  into  consciousness  the  main 
lines  of  commerce  on  sea  and  land,  an  effort  should  also  be  made 
to  compare  with  our  own  state  and  federal  systems  the  political 
systems  prevailing  among  the  more  important  peoples  of  the 
earth. 

In  the  treatment  of  all  facts,  commercial,  political  and  phys- 
ical, entering  into  this  review  the  underlying  principle  should 
be  that  of  causal  relations.  The  selection  and  interpretation  of 
7  GEOG 


98 

geographic  ractors  influencing  the  life  of  man  is  the  main  pur- 
pose of  advanced  geography.  However,  the  ability  to  make  a 
reasonably  accurate  and  complete  imaginary  map  of  the  world's 
surface,  in  which  any  important  physical  feature — city,  state  or 
people — takes  its  rightful  place  as  soon  as  it  is  mentioned,  is 
another  test  of  good  thinking  in  general  geography.  Hence  the 
never  ending  importance  of  sensible  ways  of  study  and  locational 
geography. 

The  teacher  must  bear  constantly  in  mind  the  fact  that  this 
term's  review  is  not  a  drill,  not  a  renaming  of  certain  facts,  but 
that  it  is,  on  the  other  hand,  an  attempt  to  get  a  new  viezv.  It  is 
a  review  in  which  the  pupils  have  opportunities  to  use  in  a  new 
way  the  details  that  have  been  mastered,  thereby  gaining  a  better 
conception  of  the  big  facts.  When  teacher  and  pupils  handle 
the  review  in  this  manner  they  are  not  re-listing  facts,  but  are 
finding  a  new  setting,  a  new  content  for  them. 

The  only  sure  way  to  have  our  boys  and  girls  obtain  a  useful 
knowledge  of  geography  is  to  emphasize  the  geography  of  New 
Jersey  and  the  United  States.  This  monograph  has  suggested 
much  elimination  of  subject  matter.  It  has  also  made  elimina- 
tion possible  by  suggesting  that  much  less  time  than  is  the 
ordinary  practice  be  given  to  the  continents  of  Asia,  Africa  and 
Australia,  It  is  especially  necessary  in  a  general  world  review 
to  guard  against  a  waste  of  time,  which  would  occur  if  each 
continent  received  equal  emphasis  wuth  the  others.  Therefore 
the  geography  of  any  part  of  the  world  outside  the  United 
States  is  to  be  ignored  except  as  it  is  connected  with  this  country 
in  an  important  industrial,  commercial  or  social  and  political 
way.  For  example,  it  is  easily  seen  that  our  trade  relations  with 
South  Africa,  or  Australia,  or  Venezuela,  are  negligible  as  com- 
pared with  our  trade  relations  with  France,  or  Japan,  or  Brazil. 
Even  if  it  were  possible  to  review  the  geography  of  the  entire 
world  it  would  not  be  an  economical  expenditure  of  time,  in- 
terest and  effort.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are  significant 
geography  facts  which  show  the  important  factors  of  trade 
among  industrial  and  commercial  centers  w^ithin  our  own 
borders;  also  valuable  geography  facts  which  show  our  im- 
portant trade  relations  with  such  countries  as  France,  Brazil, 
Argentina,  Chile.  Canada,  Great  Britain,  Germany,  Japan  and 
Russia.     The   emphasis   must  constantly  be   upon   those   trade 


99 

centers  with  which  we  are  most  directly  connected  by  amount 
and  quahty  of  trade. 

The  best  method  of  attack  would  be  to  make  a  study  of  in- 
dustrial and  commercial  trade  possibilities,  first  within  our  own 
state,  then  within  our  own  nation.  After  a  definite  knowledge 
of  our  chief  routes  of  trade  and  our  chief  articles  of  exchange 
has  been  gained  the  field  should  be  enlarged  to  take  in  the  most 
important  foreign  fields  with  which  we  are  most  intimately  con- 
nected. In  this  way  pupils  will  collect  only  the  data  which  they 
are  to  use;  they  are  to  gain  practice  in  the  handling  of  books, 
maps,  charts,  statistics;  they  are  to  gain  a  useful  method  of 
gathering  information — not  merely  a  mass  of  facts. 

Pupils  in  the  seventh  grade  ought  to  leani  about  the  resources 
of  New  Jersey,  her  rapid  industrial  growth,  the  great  progress 
she  is  making  in  conservation  and  development,  in  such  a  way 
that  they  will  have  an  increasing  interest  in  the  geography  of 
their  state. 

PROBLEMS 

In  starting  with  a  review  of  commercial  relations  within  New 
Jersey,  the  following  suggestive  problems  upon  which  to  center 
attention  are  offered  as  types :  ( i )  What  are  the  raw  materials 
of  the  state  that  are  used  as  material  for  manufacturing  within 
the  state?  (2)  What  are  the  raw  materials  of  the  state  that 
are  used  immediately  to  sustain  the  people  of  the  state?  (3) 
What  are  the  raw  materials  of  the  state  that  are  sent  outside 
the  state  to  be  used  immediately  or  to  be  used  in  manufacturing? 
(4)  What  are  the  raw  materials  brought  into  New  Jersey  from 
other  points  within  the  United  States,  to  be  used  immediately 
or  to  be  used  in  manufacturing?  (5)  What  are  the  raw 
materials  that  are  brought  into  this  state  from  foreign  coun- 
tries? (6)  What  are  the  chief  articles  of  trade  that  New 
Jersey  has  to  offer  the  rest  of  the  United  States?  (7)  What 
are  the  commercial  and  industrial  wants  of  New  Jersey  that 
can  be  supplied  from  points  within  the  United  States?  (8) 
What  are  the  wants  (industrial  and  commercial)  of  New  Jersey 
for  the  satisfaction  of  which  she  must  go  to  foreign  countries? 
(9)  What  are  the  commercial  and  industrial  wants  of  the 
United  States  that  can  be  supplied  from  within  the  United 
States?  (10)  What  are  the  industrial  and  commercial  wants 
of  the  United  States  for  the  satisfying  of  which  she  must  go 


ICX) 

to  foreign  countries?  (ii)  What  are  the  chief  articles  of  ex- 
change between  Brazil  and  the  United  States?  (12)  What 
are  the  chief  articles  of  trade  between  France  and  the  United 
States?  (13)  How  does  a  knowledge  of  the  trade  relations 
brought  about  by  the  exchange  of  goods  give  one  a  knowledge 
of  the  geography  of  France  and  of  the  United  States? 

The  foregoing  problems  suggest  both  a  plan  of  attack  and  an 
emphasis  upon  relative  values.  To  follow  any  one  to  solution 
pupils  will  need  to  learn  how  to  break  a  problem  up  into  its  parts, 
how  to  analyze  the  important  factors  in  any  part,  how  to  collect 
data,  and  finally,  how  to  organize  and  use  the  knowledge  gained. 
For  example,  in  solving  problem  i  it  would  be  necessary : 

1.  To  obtain  information  concerning  the  chief  raw  materials 
of  the  state.  This  would  cause  a  classification  of  these  materials 
into  such  divisions  as : 

a.  Those  produced  from  the  soil,  such  as  potatoes,  com,  fruits,  etc. 

b.  Those  mined  from  the  earth,  such  as  clay,  iron,  zinc,  sand 

c.  Those  obtained  from  the  sea,  such  as  oysters,  clams,  fish 

2.  To  study  difficulties  and  advantages  under  which  raw"  ma- 
terials are  procured.  For  example,  potato  culture  in  Monmouth 
County  is  much  more  profitable  than  it  is  in  Sussex  County; 
dairying  is  carried  on  to  more  advantage  in  Sussex  County  than 
it  is  in  Cumberland ;  oyster  fishing  is  a  financial  risk  because  of 
the  great  cost  of  planting  the  beds  and  of  harvesting  the  oysters. 

3.  To  study  how  these  industries  affect  the  life  of  the  com- 
munities where  they  are  located  because  of : 

a.  The  amount  of  money  earned  by  those  who  are  employed 

b.  The  dangers  involved  in  the  industry 

c.  The  kinds  of  people  employed 

(1)  Their  interest  in  owning  their  homes 

(2)  Their  interest  in  obtaining  a  schooling  for  their  children 

4.  To  follow  the  raw  material  through  the  process  of  manu- 
facture and  into  the  port  or  market  where  it  is  to  be  sold.  This 
would  make  the  pupils  learn  much  about : 

a.  The  manufacture  of  the  articles 

b.  The  uses  to  which  they  are  put 

c.  The  places  where  they  are  needed 

d.  The  articles   of  exchange   given   and   uses  to  which  those  articles 

are  put 


lOI 

5.  To  organize  the  full  information  obtained  to  such  a  degree 
that  it  could  be  used  in  school  and  everyday  experience.  This 
would  necessitate  a  development  in  the  pupils  of : 

a.  A  habit  of  study 

b.  An  interest  in  trade  relations  as  a  vital  part  of  state  and  national 

life 

c.  A  beginning  appreciation  of  the  pupils'  places  in  the  field  of  indus- 

trial and    commercial   endeavor 

This  device  is  not  the  only  good  way  by  which  to  teach  our 
trade  relations,  but  it  is  a  way  which  is  full  of  rich  suggestion 
for  pupils  and  teachers.  When  the  teachers  have  thought  through 
the  fact  or  facts  to  be  studied  with  such  causal  relations  upper- 
most, they  have  a  true  perspective  for  teaching.  The  pupils  are 
freed  from  a  lifeless  listing  of  exports  and  imports,  a  useless 
naming  of  amounts  and  values  of  our  exchange. 

In  dealing  with  the  economic,  educational,  governmental  and 
social  standards  of  the  various  countries  the  teacher  need  not 
expect  to  find  a  mass  of  material  with  which  to  work;  neither 
need  she  expect  the  boys  and  girls  to  have  finished  judgment  upon 
these  questions.  However,  she  can  find  some  valuable  material 
which  is  within  the  range  of  the  pupils'  understanding;  she  can 
hope  to  have  the  pupils  form  rough  judgments  which  will  be  of 
great  use  to  them  in  getting  ready  for  more  adult  points  of  view. 
For  example,  pupils  can  see  that  the  economic  life  of  China  is 
much  below  that  of  Canada;  that  the  opportunities  for  public 
education  of  the  masses  are  greater  in  the  United  States  than  in 
almost  any  other  country  in  the  world;  that  the  government 
which  insures  the  right  of  suffrage  to  all  its  citizens  is  more 
serviceable  to  mankind  in  general  than  the  one  which  refuses 
such  right;  that  the  country  in  which  the  home  and  social  life 
are  founded  upon  Christian  principles  has  the  highest  type  of 
civilization. 

The  following  suggestive  problems  indicate  a  way  by  which 
this  work  may  be  carried  out : 

(i)  How  does  the  fact  that  England  has  few  small  land 
owners  affect  the  life  of  the  people  of  England?  (2)  What  re- 
lation has  this  fact  to  the  kind  and  amount  of  England's  imports? 
(3)  Why  must  the  Dutch  people  be  thrifty  and  saving?  (4) 
What  influence  do  the  low  wages  of  China  have  upon  China's 
industrial  development?     (5)  The  children  of  France,  Germany 


I02 

and  England  have  what  educational  advantages  over  the  children 
of  Russia  ?  (6)  To  assure  yourself  of  an  opportunity  for  a  public 
school  education  where  would  you  rather  live,  in  Mexico  or  the 
United  States?  (7)  In  what  respects  is  the  Japanese  school 
system  similar  to  ours?  (8)  In  what  way  does  the  government 
of  Switzerland  benefit  its  citizens  more  than  the  government  of 
Spain?  (9)  Why  should  American  school  children  honor  and 
resi^ect  their  country  and  be  grateful  to  it?  (10)  Why  should 
adult  citizens  of  America  be  willing  to  serve  their  country  ?  (11) 
Why  would  the  leaders  of  France  be  determined  to  keep  France 
a  republic?  (12)  Certain  governments  such  as  Germany  and 
England  either  own  or  operate  their  railroads;  how  does  this 
fact  illustrate  the  right  of  a  government  to  control  industry  and 
commerce?  (13)  How  is  the  social  life  of  rural  people  different 
from  that  of  city  people?  (14)  What  is  the  relation  between 
the  low  standard  of  education  of  the  common  people  of  Russia 
and  the  social  life  of  Russia? 

Many  of  these  problems  have  been  studied  earlier  in  the  course. 
However,  this  new  attempt  to  study  from  a  new  and  definite 
point  of  view  will  give  added  zest  to  the  work  of  both  teacher 
and  pupils.  Such  work  makes  geography  knowledge  useful 
knowledge,  for  it  insures  that  the  pupils  are  learning  how  man 
affects  his  environment;  how^  his  surroundings  are  influences 
uix)n  what  he  accomplishes  in  life. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  AND  REFERENCE  BOOKS  FOR  PUPILS 
AND  TEACHER 

GRADE  Vn 

Blaich,  L,  R.    Three  Industrial  Nations.    American  Book  Co.  N.  Y, 
Bov.frran,    Isaiah.     South  America.     Rand  McNally,  Chicago 
Brooks,  E.  C.     Story  of  Cotton.     Rand  McNally,  Chicago 
Carpenter,  F.  G.     Geographical  Readers.     American  Book  Co.  N.  Y. 
Chamberlain,  J.  F.     The  Continents  and  Their  People.     Macmillan,  N.  Y. 
Day,  Clive.     History  of  Commerce.     Longmans  Green,  N.  Y. 
Greene,  Homer.     Coal  and  the  Coal  Mines.     Houghton,  Boston 
Hotchkiss,  C.  W.    Representative  Cities  of  the  United  States.    Houghton, 

Boston 
Huntington,  Ellsworth.    Asia.    Rand  McNally,  Chicago 
Smith,  J.  R.     Story  of  Iron  and  Steel 
Story  Series.     Appleton,  N.  Y. 
Tower,  W.  S.     Story  of  Oil.    Appleton,  N.  Y. 


PART  II 
HISTORY  AND  CIVICS  AS  SOCIAL  STUDIES 

GRADES  11  TO  IV 

FUNDAMENTAL   PRINCIPLES  TO  OBSERVE  IN   ALL  INSTRUCTION 
IN  PRIMARY  GRADES 

I.  Find  out  what  children  already  know  about  the  problem 
set  for  solution. 

2'.  Create  interest  concerning  the  topic  to  be  discussed  by 
means  of  observation,  anecdotes,  story  telling  and  dramatization. 

3.  Let  the  instruction  given  to  the  children  utilize  what  they 
have  observed  and  experienced,  and  make  it  as  concrete  as  possi- 
ble by  using  pictures,  objects  or  samples  of  materials  as  a  means 
of  getting  interested,  active  attention  of  the  children  and  of 
making  the  impression  vivid. 

4.  Provide  varied  opportunities  for  construction  work  such  as 
paper  cutting,  dramatic  action,  drawing,  clay  and  sand  modeling, 
doll  dressing,  house  making. 

5.  Arouse  an  intelligent  interest  in  industries  and  stimulate 
thoughtful  observation  of  those  in  the  immediate  neighborhood. 
Let  the  children  play  at  being  housekeeper,  storekeeper,  farmer, 
milkman,  carpenter,  blacksmith,  shoemaker,  etc.,  and  make  use 
of  every  opportunity  to  show  respect  for  the  property  of  another, 

GRADE  II  PROBLEMS 

Time,  two  recitations  a  week. 

In  the  work  of  the  second  year  special  effort  should  be  made 
to  enlarge  the  child's  experience  of  the  social  and  industrial  life 
which  is  within  his  range  of  observation.  Simple  concrete  prob- 
lems connected  with  procuring  food,  clothing,  shelter,  etc.,  can 
be  understood  by  even  the  youngest  children.  They  have 
observed  cooperation  in  the  family,  in  the  games  or  sports  on 
the  playground,  in  the  industries  of  the  neighborhood,  and  in 
the  classrooms.  The  school  contains  many  social  groups.  All 
training  that  a  pupil  receives  in  the  direction  of  a  realizing  sense 
of  his  own  responsibility  toward  these  school  groups  is   far- 

103 


104 

reaching  in  its  effect.  Little  children  are  eager  to  help  others 
but  in  school  they  must  be  supplied  with  definite  concrete  prob- 
lems to  solve.  They  must  be  encouraged  to  persevere  by  the 
suggestion  of  aims  or  purposes  which  appeal  to  young  children, 
and  for  every  contribution  they  make  they  must  receive  generous 
acknowledgment. 

During  the  early  years  of  school  life  children  should  be 
saturated  with  the  spirit  of  service  and  furnished  with  the  instru- 
ments of  effective  self-direction  suited  to  their  stage  of  develop- 
ment. The  problems  solved  should  reflect  the  life  of  the  larger 
society  of  which  the  school  is  a  part.  The  problems  connected 
with  family  life,  with  bearing  burdens,  problems  of  travel  and 
transportation,  and  the  appropriate  celebration  of  holidays  are 
excellent  if  presented  in  keeping  with  the  experience  of  second 
grade  children.  Positive  suggestion  on  the  part  of  the  teacher 
will  be  necessary  to  make  the  problem  seem  desirable  or  com- 
mendable so  that  the  child  will  feel  like  putting  forth  his  very 
best  effort  on  it.  The  teacher  of  the  second  grade  has  a  three- 
fold task. 

1.  To  show  the  child  that  he  is  a  helper  in  the  family,  on  the 
playground,  on  the  street,  in  the  classroom,  in  the  celebration  of 
holidays,  etc. 

2.  To  illustrate  benefits  of  working  together  or  cooperation  in 
home-making,  in  suitable  playgrounds,  clean,  well-lighted  streets, 
beautiful  parks,  pure  drinking  water,  good  roads,  the  firemen, 
the  traffic  officers,  the  public  school,  hospitals  for  the  sick,  health 
officers,  suitable  houses,  food,  clothing,  etc. 

3.  To  make  comparisons  between  what  children  have  learned 
by  personal  observation  with  what  they  have  learned  from  stories 
or  school  instruction. 

A  FABM  SAKD-TABLE 

Time,  approximately  19  weeks. 

The  aim  is  to  show  the  interdependence  of  city  people  and 
country  people.  Only  a  few  children  are  so  fortunate  as  to  have 
the  experience  of  living  in  both  the  city  and  the  country.  Before 
a  child  can  understand  why  the  farmer  needs  the  city  and  why 
the  city  people  need  the  farmer  he  must  have  a  very  definite 
idea  of  what  a  farm  is  like — how  it  appears  to  the  eye,  and  what 


los 

it  produces.     One  way  of  giving  such  instruction  is  to  make  a 
farm  on  the  sand-table.^ 

I.     Organization 

A.  Projects 

1.  Main   project — dairy  farm  on   sand-table 

2.  Minor  projects 

a.  Construct:      (1)    House;     (2)    Barn,   icehouse,   milk  house, 

silo,  corn  cribs,  hay  lofts,  etc.;  (3)  Well  or  windmill  or 
gasoline  pump;  (4)  Trucks,  automobiles,  wagons;  (5) 
Fences;     (6)  Trees;     (7)  Milk  cans  and  bottles 

b.  Model  cows,  horses,  dogs,  cats 

3.  Booklet  to  include  spelling,  language  and  arithmetic  correlated 

with   the   subject 

4.  Take  a  trip  to  a  dairy  farm 

B.  Subject  matter 

1.  Source  of  all  food 

2.  Different    kinds     of    farms — market    farms,     chicken    farms, 

dairies,  cattle  ranches,   grain  farms 

3.  Equipment  for  a  dairy  farm' 

4.  Materials  used  in  making  projects 

a.  For  house,  barn,  milk  house,  silo,  windmill,  ice  house,  etc., 
use  oaktag  or  bogus  paper,  or  possibly  wood,  or  convert 
small  wooden  boxes  into  houses,  bams,  etc. 

h.  For  trucks,  wagons,  vehicles,  use  pasteboard  or  oaktag,  or 
colored  mounting  paper,  or  possibly  wood 

c.  For  animals  use  clay 

d.  For  fences  use  dowel  sticks  and  thin  wire  or  pasteboard 

e.  For  milk  cans  use  silver  coated  paper  over  oaking 
/.  For  trees  use  green  construction  paper 

g.  For  brooks  use  colored  paper  or  zinc 

5.  It  is   suggested  that  all   the   above  be  carefully   and   simply 

planned  to  be  of  value  to  the  child 

C.  Method  (time  two  weeks) 

1.  A   discussion   about  the   kinds  of  foods   and   kinds   of  farms 
a.  Name   the   kinds   of  food   you   eat — meat,   vegetables,   fish, 
cereals  (food  made  from  grains) 


^The  purpose  and  value  of  these  projects  in  hand  work  lie  largely  in 
furnishing  the  child  an  opportunity  for  expressing  his  ideas  in  some 
other  form  than  language.  Hence,  whether  carried  out  as  Individual 
or  group  projects,  they  should  be  the  result  of  the  child's  thinking  and 
skill  rather  than  the  teacher's.  The  teacher's  aid  should  be  incidental, 
the  child  being  helped  only  where  he  would  otherwise  fail.  A  common 
modeled  form,  such  as  a  silo  or  a  com  crib,  should  be  the  outgrowth  of 
experimental  work  by  the  class  and  embody  the  collective  ideas  of  many 
children. 

=  Use  Farmers'  Bulletins  from  Washington,  D.  C. 


io6 

b.  Name  the  kinds  of  food  stuffs  used  for  drink — milk,  tea,  coffee, 

cocoa,  water 

c.  Where  do  you  get  the  food  you  eat? 

d.  Where  does  the  storekeeper  get  it? 

e.  What  does  the  farmer  sell  to  the  storekeeper? 

/.  If  you  had  meat  for  dinner,  where  did  it  come  from? 

g.  If  you  ate  milk  or  cereal,  where  did  you  get  the  milk? 

h.  Where   did   the   cereal   come   from?     What   are   cereals   made 

from? 
t.  Someone  had  chicken  for  dinner?     Where  did  the  butcher  get 
the  chicken  he  sold  you? 
2.  Having  named  the  kinds  of  farms,   decide   what  one  the  class 
will  make   (Class  decides  to  make  dairy  farm) 
II.    Presentation  (time  ten  weeks) 

1.  Equipment  needed  for  starting  a  dairy  farm 

a.  After  deciding  on  a  dairy  and  buying  the  land    (sand-table) 

what  is  the  first  thing  we  must  build?  Why?  For  the 
farmer  to  live  in.  The  next  thing?  Barns,  outbuildings. 
Why?  This  can  be  carried  out  until  all  the  necessities  are 
named  and  built. 

b.  Of  what  shall  the  farmer  make  his  house — wood,  brick,  stone 

or  concrete?  Here  the  interdependence  of  the  farmer, 
carpenter,  plumber,  painter,  etc.  can  be  shown. 

c.  Of  what  shall  we  make  ours?     (Paper  or  oaktag.) 

0.  Each  building  can  be  discussed  in  same  manner. 

e.  The  cows,  horses,  cats  and  dogs  are  modeled  from  clay 
/.  Where  will  the  cows  be  in  the  day  time? 
g.  What  keeps  them  from  their  neighbor's  lots? 
h.  What    are    fences    made    of?      (Rails,    pickets,    wire,    boards, 
concrete  posts  and  wire,  iron  posts  and  wire.) 

1.  What  shall  we  make  ours  of?     (Class  decision.     It  may  be  an 

individual's  project  if  made  with  dowel  sticks  and  wire) 

;.  How  high  shall  we  make  the  posts?     (Comparison  with  build- 
ings and  cows) 

k.  How  many  fence  posts  shall  we  need?  (Measure  the  length  of 
the  part  of  sand-table  to  be  used  for  pasture  and,  allowing 
five  inches  between  each  two  posts,  find  the  number  needed) 
/.  Now  the  fences  are  made,  the  pasture  is  chosen  and  fenced 
in;  what  do  the  cows  eat  besides  grass? 
m.  Shall  we  have  any  other  kinds  of  fields?  What  will  they  be 
for?     (Class  decision) 

n.  If  the  day  is  hot  where  do  the  cows  go  to  keep  cool? 

0.  Then  what  shall  we  need  to  put  in  our  pasture? 

p.  Shall  we  need  trees  anywhere  else  on  the  farm? 

q.  You  say  cattle  keep  cool  in  the  brooks;    on  what  side  of  the 
pasture  shall  we  make  a  brook?     (Class  decision) 

r.  What  else  does  the  cow  get  from  the  brook? 

s.  When  the  cows  get  to  the  barn,  from  what  do  they  get  water? 


107 

t.  How  does  the  farmer  get  the  water  to  the  troughs,  etc.? 
M.  What  shall  the  class  build  with  which  to  draw  water?     (Class 
decision) 
2.  Transportation 

a.  How  do«s  the  milkman  get  the  milk  to  your  house? 

b.  How  does  the  milk  get  to  Newark,  New  York  or  any  big  city? 

c.  What  shall  we  have  to  transport  our  milk  in?     (Class  decision) 

d.  "V\Tiat  does  the  farmer  put  the  milk  in? 

e.  How  does  he  get  the  milk  ready  for  selling?     Talk  over  the 

process  of  cooling,  the  need  for  sanitation 

III.  Conclusion  and  application    (time  four  weeks;     lessons  in  applica- 

tion to  be  given  when  needed  in  the  course) 

Having  constructed  the  dairy  farm  and  placed  it  on  sand-table,  use 
it  for  arithmetic  lessons  to  motivate  addition,  subtraction  and  multiplica- 
tion, in  buying  and  selling  milk,  and  in  measuring  your  construction  work. 

Language  lessons  may  consist  of  discussing  the  making  of  the  things, 
the  construction  of  real  buildings  on  a  farm,  how  the  farmer  cools  his 
milk,  and  how  he  produces  butter  and   cheese. 

Hygiene  is  easily  introduced  by  talking  over  the  sanitation  of  the 
utensils,  etc. 

Spelling  consists  of  objects  and  action  words  in  connection  with  the 
construction.  Words  chosen  will  later  be  needed  and  used  in  simple 
written  composition  work  which  will  record  some  of  these  interesting 
experiences  for  the  children. 

IV.  Stories  and   poems    (to  be  used  when   needed   during  any   part  of 

the  work).  Books  that  are  interesting  and  simple  should  be 
selected.  They  furnish  valuable  material  for  practice  in  sight 
reading.     (Time  three  weeks) 

The  dairy  farm  represents  the  study  of  food. 

A  lumber  camp  on  the  sand-table  represents  the  study  of 
:ihelter.  The  projects  to  carry  out  the  idea  of  a  lumber  camp  are 
the  log  cabin,  made  of  branches  plastered  together  with  clay; 
the  miniature  forest  of  twigs ;  the  logs ;  the  sled,  which  is  made 
01  wood;  horses  and  people  made  of  clay;  and  the  river  made 
of  colored  paper  or  zinc.  The  large  problems  connected  with 
this  study  may  be  the  building  of  a  kindergarten  chair  and  table, 
book  racks  or  window  boxes.    This  will  take  several  weeks. 

Clothing  may  be  studied.  In  this  study  emphasize  either  wool 
or  cotton.  Hemm.ing  dusters  of  cheese  cloth  is  appropriate  in 
connection  with  keeping  the  furniture  clean.  A  needle-book  may 
be  made  with  a  simple  cross  stitch  design.  Charts  and  booklets 
made  by  the  children  are  aids  in  fixing  the  processes  of  convert- 
ing the  raw  material  into  useful  commodities. 


io8  4 

The  problems  for  the  latter  half  of  the  second  year  are  centered 
about  school  life,  community  life,  and  primitive  life.  Project 
work  similar  to  the  preceding  outline  should  be  carried  on.  In 
a  study  of  primitive  life  an  attempt  should  be  made  to  show  the 
first  steps  of  interdependence.  A  comparison  of  modem  and 
primitive  life  should  be  made.  Modern  books  which  tell  in  an 
interesting  way  the  story  of  primitive  man  may  be  used  as  supple- 
mentary readers.  Certain  projects  should  be  selected  from  these 
books. 

STIGGESTED  PROJECTS 

1.  Poster  illustrating  life  of  primitive  peoples  (time,  two 
weeks) 

2.  Sand-table  of  modem  life  (time,  four  weeks) 

In  many  second,  third  and  fourth  grades  there  are  boys  and 
girls  who  are  too  mature  physically  to  enter  into  the  recitation 
and  project  work  with  the  enthusiasm  and  abandon  of  average 
boys  and  girls  of  these  grades.  These  children  should  be  given 
outside  projects  to  make  or  problems  to  solve.  Opportunity 
should  be  given  them  to  explain  to  class  the  work  which  they  do. 
When  such  pupils  do  work  that  is  valuable  and  interesting  to 
them,  and  when  they  contribute  their  share  to  the  general  pro- 
gress of  the  class,  the  right  provisions  have  been  made  for  them. 

B.E8TJLT   OF  WOfiK  ST7XKABIZEI> 

Playing  at  house  building,  housekeeping  or  storekeeping,  for 
instance,  has  been  utilized  to  teach  number  in  connection  with 
the  necessary  measurements.  Oral  language  has  been  improved 
through  the  discussions  concerning  materials  to  be  used  and  in 
the  descriptions  of  the  various  rooms  and  their  furnishings.  In 
deciding  upon  the  proportions,  and  in  the  selection  of  color  com- 
binations, training  in  art  is  given.  In  selecting  the  materials  it 
is  learned  that  the  kind  of  house  one  can  build  is  determined  by 
the  site,  by  the  resources  at  his  command,  and  by  the  purpose 
the  house  is  to  serve. 

Genuine  discussion,  disagreements  as  to  advantages  and  dis- 
advantages of  the  various  plans  give  power  to  appreciate  con- 
ditions and  to  make  decisions.  The  child  has  learned  from,  actual 
expenence  what  "working  together"  means.  He  has  learned  that  ; 
people  are  dependent  in  many  ways  upon  vegetation  and  upon 
animals,  wild  and  tame.    He  has  learned  that  each  occupation  in 


I09 

the  neighborhood  has  a  definite  relation  to  himself.  He  knows 
that  his  own  family  cannot  supply  all  his  needs.  It  is  not  a 
matter  of  mere  knowledge;  he  feels  the  interdependence.  He 
is  asking  what  each  conspicuous  element  in  his  surroundings  is 
"good  for."  He  wants  to  be  an  important  helper  in  community 
life.  He  knows  that  city  people  need  farmers  and  why  fanners 
come  to  the  city.  His  emotional  life  has  had  many  opportunities 
to  express  itself  by  participating  in  the  celebration  of  the  birth- 
days of  his  classmates  and  the  holidays  of  the  nation. 

Through  dramatic  action  the  child  has  been  "making  believe" 
and  trying  to  put  himself  in  another's  place.  He  has  been  in 
turn  "Little  Bo-peep,"  "Red  Riding  Hood,"  an  "Indian  dancing 
to  express  his  joy,"  an  "Eskimo  baby"  or  an  "Eskimo  mother," 
a  "farmer  selling  apples,"  a  "storekeeper  arranging  a  show 
window."  Consequently  he  has  gained  some  conception  of  mood, 
of  motive,  of  cause  and  effect,  which  will  help  in  later  history 
work  when  he  has  to  infer  the  motive  and  the  feeling  from  the 
outward  act.  He  has  had  sense  training  throughout  the  year's 
work  and  experience  that  will  help  furnish  material  for  a  "control 
of  his  imagination  according  to  fixed  principles."  A  controlled, 
critical  imagination  is  a  prerequisite  for  any  serious  study  of 
history. 

During  this  year  the  child's  world,  both  physical  and  human, 
has  become  larger.  He  knows  about  children  of  his  own  age. 
He  has  a  better  realization  of  his  own  importance  and  his  rela- 
tion to  others  in  work  and  in  play. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  AND  REFERENCE  BOOKS  FOR  PUPILS 
AND  TEACHER 

OKASZS  n   TO  IT 

Bancroft,  J.  H.    Games  for  the  Playground,  Home,  School  and  Gymnasium. 

Macmillan,  N.  Y. 
Brooks,   Dorothy.     Stories  of  the  Red  Children.     Educational  Pub.  Co. 

N.  Y. 
Burton,  A.  H.     Story  of  the  Indians  of  New  England.     Silver  Burdette, 

N.  Y. 
Carpenter,  F.  G.    How  the  World  Is  Clothed.    American  Book  Co.  N.  Y. 
Carpenter,  F.  G.    How  the  World  is  Fed.    American  Book  Co.  N.  Y. 
Carpenter,  F.  G.    How  the  World  is  Housed.     American  Book  Co.  N.  Y. 
Carroll,  C.  F.    Around  the  World.    Book  I.     Silver  Burdette,  N.  Y. 
Chamberlain,  J.  F.    How  we  are  Sheltered.    Macmillan,  N.  Y. 
Chance,  L.  M.    Little  Folks  of  Many  Lands.     Ginn,  Boston 
Chase,  Anna.    Children  of  the  Wigwam.    Educational  Pub.  Co.  N.  Y. 


no 

Chase  &  Clow.     Stories  of  Industry.     Educational  Pub.  Co.  N.  Y. 

Dobbs,  E.  V.     Primary  Handwork.     Macmillan,  N.  Y. 

Dopp,  K.  E.     Cave  Men.     Rand  McNally,  Chicago. 

Dopp,  K.  E.     Sea  People.    Rand  McNally,  Chicago 

Depp,  K.  E.    The  Tree  Dwellers.    Rand  McNally,  Chicago 

Dunn,  A.  W.     The  Community  and  the  Citizen.     Heath,  Boston 

Dynes,   S.   A.     Socializing  the  Child.     Silver  Burdette,   N.   Y. 

Earle,  A.  M,     Child  Life  in  Colonial  Days.     Macmillan,  N.  Y. 

Eastman,  C.  A.    Indian  Boyhood.    Doubleday  Page,  Garden  City,  N.  Y. 

Forman,  S.  E.     Stories  of  Useful  Inventions.     Century,  N.  Y, 

Holden,   E.  S.     Our  Country's  Flag.     Appleton,  N.  Y. 

Jenks,  Tudor.    The  Fireman.     McClurg,  Chicago 

Judd,  M.  C.     Wigwam  Stories.     Ginn,  Boston 

Mabie,  H.  W.    Heroes  Every  Child  Should  Know.    Doubleday  Page,  Garden 

City,  N.  Y. 
Mansfield,  B,  L.     Our  Little  Dutch  Cousins.     L.  C.  Page,  Boston 
Mclntyre,  M.  I.    The  Cave  Men.    Appleton,  N.  Y. 
McMurry,  C.  A.     Pioneers  of  Mississippi  Valley,  Macmillan,  N.  Y. 
Newell,  Cicero.     Indian  Stories.     Silver  Burdette,  N.  Y. 
Peary,  Josephine.     The   Snow  Baby.     Stokes,  N.  Y. 

Pratt,  M.  L.     Stories  of  Colonial  Children.     Educational  Pub.  Co.  N.  Y. 
Rocheleau,  W.  F.     Transportation.     Flanagan,  Chicago 
Schwatka,  Frederick.     Children  of  the  Cliff.     Educational  Pub.  Co.  N.  Y. 
Schwatka,  Frederick.     Children  of  the  Cold.     Educational  Pub.  Co.  N.  Y. 
Smith,  M.  E.  E.    Eskimo  Stories.    Rand  McNally,  Chicago 
Tappan,  E.  M.    Letters  from  Colonial  Children.     Houghton,  Boston 
Verhoeff,  Caroline.    All  about  Johnnie  Jones.     Milton  Bradley,  Boston 
Wiley,  Belle.     Newanee,  the  Little  Indian  Boy.     Silver  Burdette,  N.  Y. 


GRADE  III  PROBLEMS 

Time,  two  recitations  a  week;    no  textbook  in  hands  of  pupils. 

STTTOT  OF  PEIMITIVE  MAN 

{Continued,  from  second  grade) 

Aims  considered:  (i)  To  show  progress  of  mankind;  (2)  To 
compare  primitive  and  modern  life  with  reference  to  food,  cloth- 
ing, shelter,  records,  utensils  and  transportation;  (3)  To  show 
results  and  benefits  of  cooperation 

I.    Food 

1.  How  procured 

a-  How  could  the  tree  dweller  secure  food  when  there  were 

no  farms,  no  gardens,  no  stores,  no  markets? 
b.  Could  you  procure  such  food? 

2.  Cooking 


Ill 

a.  If  all  our  fires  should  go  out  some  day  and  no  one  could 
remember  how  to  make  a  fire  and  no  matches  could 
be  found,  what  would  you  eat? 

h.  Can  you  tell  how  a  fire  might  be  produced  if  there  were 
no  matches? 

c.  Name  all  the  different  ways  in  which  we  use  fire 

d.  Name    all    the    different    ways    in    which    primitive    men 

might  have  used  fire  if  they  had  known  how  to  make 
it  and  control  it 

e.  What  kind  of  food  do  Eskimo  children  eat? 
Projects:    Grind  corn;    Make  corn  bread 

II.     Shelter 

1.  What  kind  of  dwellings  did  primitive  people  use? 

a.  Caves 

b.  Crude  huts,  made  from  mud,  grass  and  branches  of  trees 

c.  Tents  made  from  skins  of  wild  animals 

2.  To  what  uses  were  the  early  dwellings  put? 

a.  Places  in  which  to  sleep 

b.  Furnished    protection   from   cold,   heat,   storms   and   wild 

animals 

c.  Places  in  which  to  protect  the  very  young  children 
Projects:    Make  cave-men's  home;    Eskimo  hut 

III.  Clothing 

Materials  used 

1.  Do   you   know   how   primitive   people   dressed   the   skins  of 

animals  before  they  used  them  for  clothing? 

2.  Do  you  know  how  they  made  moccasins?  leggings? 

3.  How  could  they  sew  without  needles  and  thread? 

4.  Can  you  sew  in  the  way  they  did? 
Project:    Weave  blankets 

IV.  Utensils 

Kinds 

1.  Do  you  know  how  they  made  baskets,  boats,  stilts? 

2.  How  did  they  carry  their  burdens? 

3.  Can  you  make  carrying  straps? 

Projects:   Weave  baskets  with  reed  and  raffia;    Make  canoes 
out  of  birch  bark  sewed   with   raffia;     Make  moccasins; 
Model  clay  bowls 
V.     Transportation 
Modes 

1.  How  did  the  cave-men  travel? 

2.  How  did  Indians  travel? 

3.  Make  the  tent  or  wigwam  in  which  an  Indian  of  the  plains 

lives 

4.  Make  the  kind  of  dwelling  used  by  the  Lenni  Lenape  Indians 

of  New  Jersey 
Project:    Make  an  Indian  drag 


112 

VI.     Cooperation 

1.  What  games  do  Eskimo  children  play? 

2.  In  what  ways  do  they  help  father  and  mother? 

3.  What  does  the  Eskimo  get  from  us? 
VII.    Generalization 

1.  How  do  Indians  live  now? 

2.  What  have  they  learned  from  the  white  people? 

3.  What  do  we  get  from  the  Eskimo? 

At  the  dose  of  the  year's  work  the  children  will  have  some 
definite  notions  about  progress  and  will  have  gained  some  insight 
as  to  how  progress  takes  place.  They  will  be  interested  in  dis- 
covering what  will  promote  it  and  what  will  retard  it.  They  have 
widened  their  horizon,  enlarged  their  experience,  and  gained  in 
self-reliance  and  self-confidence,  and  they  see  more  clearly  than 
before  the  value  of  cooperation. 

The  interesting  books  which  tell  of  primitive  life  in  all  lands 
should  be  used  as  supplerhentary  readers.  The  project  work  of 
the  year  and  the  readings  should  furnish  material  for  oral 
English, 

BSizr  otrrLDnE:  axtd  type  lessov  for  teaches's  ttse 

nroiAN  LIFE 

(Prepared  by  Mildred  Bayne,  Asbury  Park) 
I.    Food 
II.    Clothing 
III.    Dwellings  and  house-life 

A.  The  wigwam 

1.  A  temporary  shelter 

2.  Its  construction  determined 

a.  By  materials  available 

b.  By  needs  of  the  tribe  (it  can  be  moved  readily) 

3.  Its  location  determined 

a.  By  convenience 

b.  By  need  foir  safety 

4.  Its  decoration 

a.  Origin  of  design  used  (the  totem  of  the  tribe) 

b.  Purpose  In  using  design 

B.  The  adobe 

1.  Preparation  of  the  materials  used  in  Its  construction 

2.  Ita  location  determined 

a.  By  convenience 

b.  By  need  for  safety 
rv.    Weapons 

V.    UtensllB 


"3 


LESSON  PLAN  FOR  PRIMARY  GRADES   ON   THE   WIGWAM 

Alms:  ( I )  To  enable  children  to  get  a  vivid  mental  picture  of 
this  type  of  Indian  life;  (2)  To  show  by  means  of  comparison 
the  advantages  of  the  white  man's  home;  (3)  To  stimulate  curi- 
osity conc'erning'  possible  means  of  improving  a  home. 

Approach  to  the  lesson.  Pictures  and  models  of  two  types  of 
Indian  dwellings  are  placed  before  the  children.  Questions  are 
asked  concerning  the  pictures  and  models  to  produce  careful 
observation  by  the  children. 


Questions 

1.  We    learned    that    the    Indians 

used  two  kinds  of  material 
for  clothing.  Name  the  two 
materials  used  by  them. 

2.  If  you  had  to  use  one  of  these 

materials  to  cover  this  frame- 
work  of   poles,   which   would 
you   choose? 
The    Indian    called    this    dwell- 
ing a  wigwam. 

3.  What   did   the   Indians   use   for 

thread  in  sewing?  What  did 
they  use  for  a  needle? 

The  Indians  sewed  very  large 
skins  together  to  make  this 
cover.  They  stretched  this 
large  piece  over  the  poles. 
The  poles  were  fastened  in 
the  ground  at  the  bottom  and 
tied  at  the  top. 

Long  poles  were  selected.  Why 
did  they  choose  long  poles? 

4.  With    what    could    the    Indians 

fasten  the  poles  together  at 
the  top?  Did  they  have  rope? 
What  else  do  you  think  they 
could    use? 

5.  If  you  wanted  to  feel  quite  safe 

would  you  choose  to  live  in 
a  wigwam  or  in  a  house  made 
of  wood?  8   G^OG 


Answers  Anticipated 
The  Indians  made  clothing  of 
skins  of  animals  cured  by  the 
squaws.  They  also  used 
colored  wool  woven  into 
cloth. 
The  skin  would  keep  out  the 
wind  and  the  rain.  It  is 
stronger  than  woolen  cloth. 

W-i-g-w-a-m  written  on  black- 
board (to  be  spelled  and 
pronounced). 

They  could  sew  with  strips  of 
leather  or  with  sinews  of 
animals.  They  could  use  a 
sharp  thorn  or  a  small  shaii) 
bone  for  a  needle. 

Teacher  demonstrates  on  sand- 
table  or  illustrates  on  the 
blackboard. 


They  used  long  poles  so  that 
the  tall  Indians  could  stand 
inside  without  stooping. 

4.  They  could  use  stronger  pieces 

of  sinew  than  the  fine  pieces 
used  in  sewing.  They  could 
cut  a  skin  into  narrow  strips 
and  tie  the  poles  together 
with  them. 

5.  I   would    feel    more    safe    in    a 

house  made  of  wood. 


114 


6.  What  do  you  think  might  hap-        6. 

pen  to  this  wigwam  in  a 
storm  ? 

7.  If  you  were  an  Indian  making        7. 

a  wigwam  and  knew  that 
there  would  be  some  wind- 
storms in  a  few  days,  how 
would  you  try  to  fasten  the 
poles? 

8.  How    would    you    put    on    the        8. 

covering? 

9.  If  the  covering  is  loose  and  a        9. 

storm  of  rain  or  snow  comes, 
what  will  happen  to  the  wig- 
wam? 

10.  Can  you  see  in  the  picture  this       10. 

extra  piece  of  skin  sewed  at 
the  top  like  a  flap?  This 
can  be  closed  over  the  open- 
ing when  there  is  a  storm. 

11.  How    could    the    Indians    heat      11. 

this  wigwam? 

12.  How  would  the  smoke  get  out?      12. 

Can  you  see  any  chimney? 
Do  we  have  chimneys?  Could 
the  Indians  have  a  chimney 
in  this  kind  of  dwelling? 

13.  How  do  you  know  which  house      13. 

in  the  street  is  yours?  How 
did  the  Indian  know  which 
wigwam  was  his  home? 
Find  the  totem  in  this  picture. 
What  does  it  represent? 
What  other  totems  have  you 
seen?  Suppose  an  Indian 
wished  to  leave  a  message 
at  his  wigwam  where  would 
he  place  it? 

14.  Why  do  the  Indians  locate  the      14. 

wigwam  near  a  spring  or 
stream?  Why  do  they  place 
it  in  a  forest? 


15.  Which  trees  do  not  drop  their      15. 
leaves  in  the  autumn? 


The  wind  might  blow  it  down. 


Teacher  should  make  the  most 
of  contributions  given  and 
encourage    experiments. 


I    would    stretch   it    and    tie    it 

firmly. 
The    rain    or    snow    will    come 

in. 


Teacher    illustrates    on    black- 
board. 


They  could  build  a  fire  inside. 

Commend      those      who      give 
thoughtful   answers. 


We  know  our  homes  by  the 
number,  by  outward  appear- 
ance, the  color,  the  material, 
the  lawn,  etc.  The  Indian 
knew  his  wigwam  by  the 
totem. 

He  w^ould  write  it  in  pictures 
on  the  skin  at  the  door. 
(Teacher  shows  a  brief  mes- 
sage written  in  pictures  on 
the  blackboard.) 

The  Indian  wants  to  live  near 
water  to  get  drinking  water 
and  to  get  fish,  oysters, 
clams  or  crabs.  He  also 
wants  to  be  near  animals  and 
to  be  protected  from  storms. 

Evergreens  keep  their  leaves 
on. 


115 

16.  Listen     to     these     lines     from      16.   (Place  on  blackboard)   "Behind 

Longfellow  about  the  wigwam  it  rose  the  black  and  gloomy 

of  Hiawatha  and  Nokomis.  pine    trees"    and    "The    firs 

with  cones  upon  them." 

17.  Wliy  do  you  suppose  the  Indian      17.  He  might  want  better  food.    He 

moved  his  wigwam  so  often.  might  want  a  warmer  place. 

18.  When  the  iRdian  moved  he  took       18.  He  would  place  the  poles  side 

down   the  wigwam   and   used  by  side.    He  would  spread  the 

it    for    a    moving    van.      Can  covering  over  the  poles  and 

you      see      how      he      would  pile  his  goods  on  top. 
arrange  the  van? 

NEXT  LESSON 

Compare  a  wigwam  with  a  white  man's  home  with  reference 
to  the  following  points  : 

1.  Location 

2.  Construction 

3.  Durability 

4.  Protection  against 

a.  Storms 

b.  Enemies 

c.  Wild  animals 

EEVTEW 

When  the  children  have  covered  all  the  work  indicated  in  the 
outline,  Indian  posters  may  be  made  to  show  their  knowledge  of 
Indian  life.  An  ideal  location  for  an  Indian  wigwam  may  be 
made  on  the  sand-table.  The  wigwam  can  be  constructed  and 
the  canoes  can  be  made  and  placed  at  the  edge  of  the  river.  The 
Indians  can  be  modeled  out  of  clay,  painted  with  water  colors 
and  arranged  in  natural  positions  and  groups. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  AND  REFERENCE  BOOKS  FOR  PUPILS 
AND  TEACHER 

GBADE  lU 

See  list  at  end  of  Grade  II 

GRADE  IV  PROBLEMS 

Time,  three  recitations  a  week.  No  textbook  in  hands  of 
pupils. 

ENLARGING  THE  PTTPIL'S  EXPERIENCE 

In  the  fourth  year  of  primary  work  the  pupil's  social  experi- 
ence can  be  enlarged  by  school  instruction  much  more  rapidly 
than  in  the  two  preceding  years  because  he  is  now  quite  at  home 


ii6 

in  the  school  atmosphere.  The  conspicuous  elements  in  the 
social  life  of  the  neighborhood  of  both  home  and  school  are 
familiar  to  him  and  he  is  now  ready  to  widen  his  horizon  still 
further.  By  studying  the  child  life  in  other  lands  at  the  present 
day,  for  instance,  the  pupil  is  introduced  to  people  who  are  as 
highly  civilized  and  enlightened  as  himself,  and  whose  manners 
and  customs,  occupations  and  amusements  offer  material  out  of 
which  comparisons  and  contrasts  can  be  made.  The  contrast 
between  the  daily  experiences  of  children  in  other  lands  and 
those  in  our  own  will  bring  up  many  concrete  problems  in  his- 
tor\-,  civics  and  geography  that  are  within  the  pupil's  range  of 
comprehension  and  that  will  make  a  strong  appeal  to  his  present 
interests.  A  fourth  grade  pupil  wants  to  know  what  games  such 
children  play,  how  they  celebrate  holidays,  how  they  help  their 
parents,  what  they  eat,  how  they  travel  and  transport  goods,  and 
in  what  kind  of  homes  they  live.  In  finding  answers  to  these 
questions  his  interest  in  far-away  places  and  people  is  stimulated 
and  his  sympathies  are  broadened. 

THE  PRIMASY  PUPIL'S  SEKSE  OF  HISTOKIC  TIME 

By  Studying  child  life  in  colonial  days,  or  in  revolutionary 
days  in  New  Jersey,  the  pupils  in  the  fourth  grade  become  inter- 
ested in  conditions  that  are  far  away  in  time.  No  attempt  should 
be  made  in  any  of  the  first  four  years  of  school  life  to  teach 
historic  time  as  such.  Children  below  the  fifth  grade  have  very 
vague  notions  of  time.  E.  g.,  "A  long  time  ago,  when  father 
was  a  little  boy,  or  when  grandmother  was  a  little  baby,  or  when 
grandfather  was  a  boy  of  eight  or  nine,"  is  their  method  of 
getting  back  into  the  long  ago.  The  primary  pupil's  actual 
experience  with  years  of  time  is  too  limited  to  warrant  any 
definite  instruction  in  historic  time.  The  present  is  vastly  more 
interesting  to  him  than  either  the  past  or  the  future.  As  a  rule 
primary  pupils  acquire  curiosity  about  the  past  through  their 
interest  in  aged  relatives  or  friends,  in  old  buildings,  convey- 
ances, costumes,  utensils,  etc.  For  most  children  under  ten  years 
of  age  these  are  safer  measuring  rods  than  either  years  or  cen- 
turies because  they  are  more  significant. 

SUGGESTIONS  FOK  A  STUDY  OF  CHILD  LIFE  IN  OTHER  LANDS 

An  easy  method  of  approach  to  a  study  of  child  life  in  other 
lands  in  our  own  day,  or  to  a  study  of  child  life  in  colonial  or 


117 

revolutionary  days,  is  through  the  solution  of  social  and  indus- 
trial problems  which  can  be  made  concrete.  The  following  sug- 
gestive outline  on  the  study  of  child  life  in  other  lands  offers 
sufficient  work  for  several  weeks.  If  the  teacher  presents  this 
work  in  such  a  way  that  the  pupils  get  real  information  about 
child  life  in  Holland  there  will  be  no  need  to  make  detailed 
studies  of  several  other  countries  with  respect  to  the  problems 
involved.  The  pupils  will  gain  power  to  use  their  experience 
about  Holland  whenever  they  think  and  talk  about  other 
countries. 

JOTTRNEY  TO   HOLLAUD 

I.     Means  of  transportation   (time  one  week) 

1.  On  sea  and  canal 

2.  On  land — dog  carts,  milk  carts 

II.  Description  of  Holland  (time  one  week) 

1.  No  forest 

2.  No  mountains 

3.  Broad  low  fields 

4.  Long  stretches  of  green  pasture  in  summer 

5.  Black  and  white  cows  grazing 

6.  Windmills 

7.  Dikes;     reason  for;     care  of;     stories  about 

8.  Canals 

9.  Markets — cheese,  fish 

III.  Homes  (time  two  weeks) 

1.  Description  (use  postcards) 

2.  Why  different 

3.  Home  life 

a.  How  children  help  parents 

b.  Games  they  play 

c.  Christmas  customs;    Feast  of  St.  Nicholas;    New  Year's 

Day 

rv.     Clothing   (time  one  week) 


1. 

Wooden  shoes 

2. 

Full   cloth  skirts;     white 

kerchief 

3. 

Headdress 

4. 

Wide  trousers 

5. 

Short  jackets 

V.    Occupation  (time  two  weeks) 

1. 

Bulb  raising 

2. 

Cheese-making 

3. 

Fishing 

4. 

Spinning,  lacemaking, 

knitting 

ii8 

VI.    Historical  stories  (time  one  week) 

1.  Heroes 

2.  Why  called  "Land  of  Pluck" 

3.  Peter  at  the  Dike 

4.  Hans  Brinker  and   the   Silver   Skates 

VII.    Projects  (time  four  weeks) 

1.  Make    Dutch    scene    in    winter    or    summer    (sand-table    or 

poster) 

2.  Dress  doll  in  Dutch  costume 

3.  Dutch  ready  to  embark  for  America 

4.  Dutch  landing  in  America 

5.  Pilgrims  among  the  Dutch  in  Holland   (3,  4  and  5  may  be 

assembled  in  a  poster) 

6.  If    possible    visit    any    points    of    interest    connected    with 

Dutch  settlements 

THE   PRIMARY   CHILD'S  SENSE   OF  PLACE   AND   MAP-MAKING 

Only  those  who  have  taught  Httle  children  can  realize  how 
very  vague  their  notions  of  space  and  place  relations  are  when 
they  enter  school.  Sand-table  work  and  excursions  under  the 
supervision  of  the  teacher  in  grades  II  to  IV,  together  with  their 
increased  power  in  number  work,  have  prepared  the  children  to 
undertake  definite  work  in  map-making  and  in  reading  maps 
made  by  others.  No  fact  can  be  said  to  be  an  historic  fact  unless 
it  is  definitely  located  in  both  time  and  place. 

Primary  children  are  capable  of  grasping  location  in  place 
earlier  than  location  in  time  because  of  their  larger  experience 
in  connection  with  the  former,  which  enables  them  to  picture  a 
scene  much  more  readily  than  the  lapse  of  time  since  an  event 
occurred.  But  even  at  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  year  in 
school,  distances  which  are  outside  their  range  of  vision  or  over 
which  they  have  not  traveled  mean  only  "far  away"  or  a  "long 
way  off."  Consequently,  in  the  fourth  grade  emphasis  must  be 
placed  upon  map-making  and  map  interpretation,  and  place  rela- 
tions in  history  must  be  taught  in  a  definite  way.  If  during  the 
first  three  years  the  children  have  had  practice  in  visualizing  the 
material  background  of  history  as  indicated  in  the  suggestions 
for  both  geography  and  history  given  in  this  monograph,  they 
are  prepared  to  receive  definite  instruction  in  making  maps  and 
in  reading  maps  during  the  fourth  year.  Some  children  can 
begin  the  work  as  early  as  the  third  year. 

Because  the  history  of  New  Jersey,  or  of  the  United  States, 


119 

is  intimately  related  to  the  physical  environment  of  the  people 
in  the  State  and  in  the  various  sections  of  the  United  States,  a 
concrete  knowledge  of  the  geography  of  a  particular  region 
helps  to  make  some  of  the  historical  facts  of  that  locality  more 
real.  Consequently  in  teaching  history  the  geographical  back- 
ground must  be  emphasized.  E.  g.,  in  beginning  the  study  of 
the  early  settlement  of  New  Netherlands  by  the  Dutch,  a  sand- 
table  map  of  the  region  from  the  mouth  of  the  Connecticut  to 
the  mouth  of  the  Delaware  should  be  before  the  eyes  of  the  chil- 
dren. The  value  of  a  good  harbor  into  which  a  vessel  can  easily 
sail  should  be  emphasized.  The  pupils  should  be  stimulated  to 
visualize  the  appearance  of  the  region  at  that  time — the  dense 
forests,  the  wild  animals,  the  birds,  and  the  Indians — so  that  the 
problems  confronting  the  Dutch  when  they  arrive  can  be  com- 
prehended more  readily. 

SUGGESTIONS   FOR    MAKING   THE   COLONIAL    HISTORY   OF   NEW   JERSEY   REAL    TO 
CHILDREN  IN  THE  FOURTH  GRADE 

1.  Use  good  pictures.  Place  them  where  the  children  can  see 
them  easily.  Question  to  make  sure  that  the  pictures  are  care- 
fully observed  and  interpreted  correctly. 

2.  Have  the  girls  dress  dolls  in  the  costumes  of  the  early 
Dutch  settlers  and  in  the  costumes  worn  by  the  Society  of 
Friends  or  in  the  garb  of  the  Puritans  who  came  from  New 
England. 

3.  Have  the  boys  make  on  the  sand-table  a  Dutch  blockhouse 
surrounded  by  strong  palisades,  the  Friends'  Meeting  House, 
and  different  types  of  colonial  houses. 

4.  The  whipping  post,  the  pillory  and  the  stocks  can  be  made 
real  by  pictures  and  verbal  descriptions. 

5.  Convey  information  through  stories,  anecdotes  and  descrip- 
tions of  dramatic  episodes.  Encourage  children  to  act  out  the 
dramatic  scenes.  Arouse  curiosity  by  asking  questions  and  by 
showing  models,  pictures,  objects  of  historic  interest — a  warm- 
ing pan  or  a  foot-stove,  for  instance,  or  a  pewter  dish. 

6.  Compare  and  contrast  colonial  scenes  and  conditions  with 
those  of  the  present  day. 

The  following  outline  is  suggestive  of  the  kind  of  material 
available  in  enlarging  the  pupil's  experience,  and  is  valuable  m 
laying  a  foundation  for  the  study  of  history. 


120 


COLONIAL  HISTORY   OF   NEW  JERSEY 

I.     ICiirly  HottlorB  (time  three  wocUh) 

1.  QtinkerB   (Friends) 

Dross,  plain  lanRiiano,  social  customs,  o.  g.,  refusal  to  doff 
hats,  to  take  an  oath  In  court,  to  go  to  war 
Project:     Illustrate   Quaker   dress   by   cutting   paper   costume 
for  a  child 

2.  Dutch 

Dress,  hnlilts  of  industry,  customs,   children's  games 
Project:    house,  cliildron's  costumes 

II.     Mothml  of  i)rorurlnp;  land  from  Indians   (tlmo  two  weoks) 

1.  Trading 

a.  In  Now  York 
/;.  In  Now  Jersey 
c.  In  PcMinsylvanla 

2.  Invasion  by  white  man 
a.  Hunter  and  trapper 
/;.  Pioneer 

c.  Surveyor 

d.  Farmer  seeking  permanent  home 

3.  Patrmm'a  grant  of  land 

a.  Extent:    eight  miles  on  both  sides  of  river  or  sixteen  miles 

on  one  side  of  river  and  as  far  back  as  he  wished 
project:    map  drawing 

b.  Responsibilities 

(1)  Pay  Indians  for  land 

(2)  Pay  expenses  of  50  colonists 

(3)  Set  colonists  up  In  farming 

(4)  Provide  school   teacher  and  minister 

III.    Occupations  of  early  colonists   (time  four  weeks) 

1.  Fur  trading  with  Indians 

Kinds  of  fur,  how  secured,  i)rlre  paid,  kind  of  money  used 

2.  Farming 

a.  Few  Implements,  no  modern  machinery 

/).  Domestic  animals  from  England 

,-.  Crops  raised— wheat,  rye,  oats,  cam,  tobacco 

3.  Foreign  trade  with  England 
a.  Furs 

/).  Skins 

c.  Tobacco 

4.  Trade  with  Spain.  Portugal.  Canary  Islands 
a.  Oil 

h.  Fish 

5.  Early  industries  of  the  locality  in  which  school  is  located 
Project:    trips  to  historical  points 


121 

IV.     Transportation   (time  three  weeks) 

1.  Land 

a.  Horseback,  sedan  chair,  stage  coach 

b.  Poor  roads 

2.  Water:     row  and  sail-boats,  hand  ferry,  tow  boat 
Projects:    cutting  or  pasteboard   modeling   showing  evolution 

of  transportation 
V.     Colonial  conditions  to  be  realized   (time  five  weeks) 

1.  Sundial  and   hourglass  to  tell  time  of  day 

2.  Heat  and  light:    no  stoves,  huge  fireplaces,  pine  knots;    oiled 

paper  Instead  of  window  glass;  tallow  dips,  tallow  candles, 
wax  candles,  no  electric  lights,  no  gas;  warming-pans, 
foot-stoves 

3.  Communication:     no    newspaper;     mall    delivered    Irregularly 

by  post  boys  or  stage  coaches;    no  telegraph,  no  telephone 

4.  Different  types  of  colonial  homes 

a.  Use    pictures,    postcards,    models,    descriptions,    and    visit 

some  homes  still   standing 

b.  Use  of  Dutch  oven,  brick  oven 

5.  Amusements,  recreation,  holidays,  celebrations 

6.  Slaves,   Redemptlonors  In   New  Jersey 

Projects:    (1)   Chart  to  show  method  of  lighting  and  heating 
— modem  and  historic;    (2)  Dip  tallow  candles 
Vf.     Special  subjects  and  projects  (time  five  weeks) 

1.  Anecdotes  and   episodes  concerning  early  settlers  In   locality 

of  school 

2.  Stories    of    Henry    Hudson,    Peter   Mlnult,    Peter    Stuyvesant, 

William  Penn,  John  Fitch 

3.  Early  settlements  In  New  Jersey — Bergen,  MIddletown,  Shrews- 

bury, Woodbrldge 

4.  Other  places  prominent  before  the  Revolution:    Scotch  Plains, 

Camden,    New    Bnmswick,    Elizabeth,    Rahway,    Tuckerton, 
German  Valley,  Newton,  Oxford.  Deckertown,  Newark,  Tren- 
ton,  Plalnfield,   Hackensack 
Vri.     Supplementary    historical    and    geographical    reading    (time    three 

weeks).     To  be  given  when  It  will  best  reinforce  class  study  or 

project  work 

STTMMARY  OF  WOHX 

A  child  entering  the  fifth  grade  who  has  had  the  training  out- 
linefl  for  grades  II  to  IV  inclusive  will  be  eager  to  hear  stories 
anfl  biographies  of  mature,  historic  personages.  In  the  second 
year  he  has  learned  how  to  conduct  himself  when  with  other 
children  and  has  had  his  appreciation  of  home  intensified.  He 
learned  some  of  the  handicaps  and  difficulties  of  primitive  man 
and  felt  the  superiority  of  some  of  the  advantages  of  our  modern 


122 

life.  In  the  third  and  fourth  years  he  has  become  acquainted 
with  children  in  far  away  places  and  children  who  lived  in  the 
same  place  in  which  he  now  lives,  but  long,  long  ago.  His 
physical  world  and  his  human  world  have  been  growing  larger 
and  larger  and  his  curiosity  has  increased. 

CIVICS 

In  grades  II  to  IV  inclusive  no  regular  recitation  time  need 
be  given  in  civics  as  such,  but  instead  the  subject  matter  of 
geography  and  history  may  be  given  from  the  point  of  view  of 
civics  at  any  time  in  the  course.  For  example,  when  the  geog- 
raphy course  is  considering  the  location  of  the  school  ground  it 
would  be  very  appropriate  for  the  teacher  to  direct  attention 
toward  the  playground  rights  of  the  children,  also  toward  the 
value  to  the  community  in  having  a  place  where  the  children 
can  play. 

In  this  same  work  opportunity  would  be  offered  for  practical 
work  for  second,  third  or  fourth  grade  in  keeping  the  ground 
free  from  paper  and  other  refuse;  in  beautifying  the  ground 
with  flower  beds  or  simple  playground  apparatus. 

When  these  grades  are  observing  special  holidays  or  when 
they  are  talking  about  the  life  of  one  of  our  former  leaders  the 
teacher  can  get  civic  material  from  each  of  the  given  situations. 
For  example,  in  discussing  the  Thanksgiving  vacation,  a  part  of 
the  work  should  be  practical  civics,  showing  how  the  forefathers 
worked  together  for  a  common  good,  how  they  gave  thanks  for 
their  blessings,  and  how  they  held  themselves  in  readiness  to 
aid  their  people.  Comparison  could  be  made  with  the  Thanks- 
giving of  the  Pilgrim  fathers,  and  with  the  Thanksgiving  which 
we  enjoy  today.  For  example,  the  country  children  today  have 
definite  opportunities  to  do  good  at  Thanksgiving  time.  The 
city  children  also  can  find  such  opportunities  on  every  hand. 
The  classroom  teacher  is  doing  actual  civic  teaching  when  these 
things  are  made  subjects  for  discussion  in  regular  schoolroom 
work. 

In  keeping  with  this  principle,  the  teachers  of  the  lower  grades 
have  excellent  opportunities  to  do  something  more  than  corre- 
late history,  geography  and  civics.  They  can  put  into  practice 
the  principle  stated  in  the  introduction  of  this  monograph;  that 
is,  they  can  demonstrate  by  actual  teaching  that  these  subjects 


123 

are  simply  different  aspects  of  the  large  social  subjects  which 
show  how  man  lives  and  enjoys  his  living. 

We  are  still  handicapped  in  th'e  work  of  the  elementary  schools 
by  the  old  time  way  of  trying  to  teach  attitudes  of  behavior 
through  the  "moral"  or  "lesson"  supposed  to  be  in  a  certain  piece 
of  literature.  If  all  this  practice  would  cease,  it  would  be  fortu- 
nate indeed,  but  there  are  still  too  many  cases  where  the  teacher 
thinks  that  by  discussion  of  the  moral  attached  to  the  given 
story  the  children  will  learn  how  to  behave.  If  such  a  teacher 
would  see  how  little  she  herself  is  influenced  in  her  action  by  a 
reverie  on  the  moral  of  a  given  story,  perhaps  she  would  begin 
to  check  her  practice.  Unfortunately  she  seldom  makes  this 
connection. 

If  our  work  in  civics  is  to  be  successful  this  way  of  civics  teach- 
ing must  be  eliminated.  If  there  is  a  valuable  moral  in  a  given 
selection,  and  if  the  child  in  studying  this  selection  feels  the 
effect  of  this  moral  lesson,  he  has  obtained  value  from  it.  Talk- 
ing about  it,  asking  him  if  he  has  it,  does  harm  instead  of  good. 
Our  work  in  civics,  even  in  the  early  grades,  must  change,  then, 
from  a  mere  discussion  about  right  acts  to  a  condition  in  which 
we  bring  about  situations  that  will  necessitate  right  actions  on 
the  part  of  the  children.  The  right  actions  will  obtain  through 
practice  and  not  from  theory. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  AND  REFERENCE  BOOKS  FOR  PUPILS 
AND  TEACHER 

GRADE  IV 

Bass,  Florence.    Pioneer  Life.    Heath,  Boston 

Brigham,  A.  P.     From  Trail  to  Railway.     Ginn,  N.  Y. 

Campbell,  H.  L.     Story  of  Little  Jan,  the  Dutch  Boy  (in  Children  of  the 

World  Series).     Educational  Pub.  Co.  N.  Y. 
Coe,  F.  E.    Heroes  of  Everyday  Life.    Ginn,  N.  Y. 
Dodge,  M.  M.     Hans  Brinker;    or  the  Silver  Skates.     Scribner,  N.  Y. 
Ellis,  E.  S.  &  Snyder,  Henry.     History  of  New  Jersey.     American  Book 

Co.  N.  Y. 
Griffls,  W.  E.     Brave  Little  Holland.     Houghton,  Boston 
Humphrey,  Frances.     Pilgrim  Stories.     Rand  McNally,  Chicago 
Otis,  James.     Peter  of  Amsterdam.     American  Book  Co.  N.  Y. 
Otis,  James.     Stephen  of  Philadelphia.     American  Book  Co.  N.  Y. 
Perkins,  L.  F.     The  Dutch  Twins.     Houghton,  Boston 
Pratt,  M.  L.     Stories  of  Colonial  Children.    Educational  Pub.  Co.  N.  Y. 
Southworth,  Gertrude.     Builders  of  our  Country.     Vol.  I  &  II.     Appleton, 

N.  Y. 


124 

Stockton,  F.  R.    Stories  of  New  Jersey.    American  Book  Co.  N.  Y. 
Tappan,  E.  M.    Hero  Stories  of  American  History.    Houghton,  Boston 
Walton,  J.  S.  &  Brumbaugh,  M.  G.     Stories  of  Pennsylvania.     American 

Book  Co.  N.  Y. 
Welsh,  L.  D.     Colonial  Days.     Educational  Pub.  Co.  N.  Y. 
Wright,  H.  C.     Stories  of  American  Progress.     Scribner,  N.  Y. 

See  also  list  at  end  of  Grade  II 


GRADES  V  TO  VIII 

GRADE  V 

HISTORY 

Time  allotment,  not  more  than  three  recitations  a  week.  Much 
of  the  work  should  be  given  as  a  part  of  the  regular  work  in 
reading,     Elementar}^  textbook  in  hands  of  pupils. 

SPECIFIC  AIMS 

It  is  a  fact  that  very  many  boys  and  girls  leave  school  at  the 
end  of  the  fifth  grade.  These  children  are  lost  to  the  school 
at  a  time  when  the  school  should  do  them  the  most  good,  but 
unfortunately  neither  their  parents  nor  society  can  sense  the 
necessity  of  keeping  them  in  school  throughout  the  grades.  The 
fifth  grade  teacher  especially  should  hold  these  facts  in  mind, 
since  she  has  most  influence  in  instilling  into  this  class  of  children 
whatever  is  possible  of  a  sense  of  civic  duty  and  an  appreciation 
of  the  growth  of  government.  In  teaching  this  class  of  pupils 
her  pur^xjse  should  be : 

1,  To  get  these  pupils  into  an  attitude  of  mind  where  they 
will  see  the  history  of  our  country  as  shown  through  the  lives 
of  our  great  men,  and  the  big  movements,  such  as  religious 
liberty,  cooperation  in  government,  representation  in  govern- 
ment, just  taxing,  which  they  espoused. 

2.  To  get  worthy  ideals  into  their  lives,  plus  a  habit  of  making 
these  ideals  into  practices. 

3,  To  instill  a  yearning  to  know  more  and  more  about  what 
our  country  has  done, 

4.  To  give  them  ideals  that  will  make  them  take  active  parts 
in' the  groups  of  society  into  which  they  fall. 

'5.  To  give  to  those  who  have  the  ability  to  use  it,  the  ambition 
to  become  leaders. 


125 

If  the  above  purposes  are  worth  while,  then  the  method  of 
teaching  history  must  be  such  that  the  child  will  see: 

1.  The  leaders  of  our  country  as  men  and  women  who  worked 
for  the  good  of  the  community  and  the  state. 

2.  The  development  of  government  as  an  outgrowth  of  human 
experience  with  difficult  problems. 

3.  How  human  experience  and  the  laws  of  our  nation  affect 
each  other. 

4.  Himself  as  a  young  citizen  who  is  receiving  benefits  from 
the  actions  of  the  men  and  women  who  lived  many  years  ago. 

The  foregoing  purposes  make  history  a  subject  in  which 
character  is  revealed,  one  in  which  law  is  shown  as  a  growing 
mode  of  guidance,  one  in  which  the  facts  taught  are  of  value, 
not  in  themselves,  but  only  as  their  causes  and  effects  are  found 
in  their  relation  to  daily  living.  In  other  words,  history  is  made 
a  vitalizing  study,  where  it  is  shown  that  given  conditions  help 
to  make  of  certain  men  heroes  and  able  servants,  and  that  such 
men  in  turn  modify  conditions  of  living  in  the  interest  of 
humanity. 

The  method  of  approach  would  be  through  the  life  of  the 
leader,  first  as  he  affects  his  country,  then  as  his  country  repre- 
sents and  reflects  him.  The  second  stage  in  method  would  show 
that  certain  men  working  along  kindred  lines  stood  for  prin- 
ciples which  became  fundamental  to  the  life  of  society,  that  these 
principles  became  greater  and  clearer  as  society  obeyed  them, 
until  definite  tendencies  and  laws  were  established.  When  the 
child  studies  in  this  way  the  great  leaders  and  movements  history 
is  made  clear  to  him. 

In  the  fifth  grade  the  teacher's  primary  purpose  is  accom- 
plished if  the  child  begins  to  interpret  the  leaders  and  movements 
of  history.  The  finished  product  will  come  when  he  is  much 
older.  The  children  of  this  grade  should  not  be  held  responsible 
through  either  written  or  oral  tests  for  a  mastery  of  historical 
facts  or  information.  As  indicated  by  the  discussion,  in  this 
grade  the  important  consideration  is  to  select  that  liistory 
material  which  will  best  show  how  our  country  has  developed, 
as  represented  in  the  lives  of  important  leaders  and  in  great 
historical  movements.  Therefore  no  attempt  toward  tlie  detailed 
study  of  such  topics  as  period  of  discovery,  period  of  colonic^ 
tion,  French  and  Indian  wars,  should  he  made.     On  the  other 


126 

hand,  the  story  of  colonization  can  be  understood  by  fifth  grade 
boys  and  girls  if  the  teacher  directs  the  work  in  such  a  way  that 
those  men  who  had  most  to  do  with  colonization  are  portrayed 
as  active  individuals  at  work  to  accomplish  certain  definite 
results.  Aeain,  the  life  of  a  man  like  Daniel  Boone  illustrates 
to  these  children  some  of  the  difficulties  encountered  in  settling 
and  developing  our  country.  The  pupils  can  see  in  him  a  man 
who  really  personified  the  great  movement  in  American  history 
to  explore  new  territory,  to  endure  hardship,  to  encounter 
danger,  and  to  succeed  in  spite  of  adverse  circumstances. 

In  studying  big  events  and  movements  through  the  lives  of 
men  the  teacher  must  not  make  the  mistake  of  assuming  that 
movements  can  be  represented  by  the  life  of  a  single  individual. 
Most  of  the  movements  worthy  of  study  are  much  more  im- 
portant than  the  lives  oi  the  individual  men  who  championed 
them.  For  example,  the  movement  toward  uniting  in  a  New 
England  confederacy  was  large  enough  to  have  leading  men  take 
different  sides.  Those  who  held  to  the  view  of  the  value  of 
confederating  were  as  sincere  as  those  who  held  to  the  opposite 
view.  The  movement  is  not  truly  understood  until  teacher  and 
pupils  study  the  lives  of  the  men  who  represented  both  sides  in 
the  discussion.  A  true  concept  of  the  movement  comes  only 
when  pupils  and  teacher  study  why  the  given  men  believed  as 
they  did. 

If  the  teacher's  problem  is  to  present  how  the  northwestern 
territory  was  acquired  she  can  find  most  valuable  material  for 
the  children  through  the  life  of  George  Rogers  Clark.  If  she 
wants  to  give  the  pupils  opportunities  to  appreciate  how  great 
men  of  our  country  have  served  the  country  well  she  should 
have  the  pupils  read  short  biographies  of  such  men  as  Franklin, 
Washington,  Lincoln,  Grant,  Lee,  McCormick  and  Edison.  In 
following  such  a  plan  as  suggested,  her  work  organizes  itself 
about  the  leading  men  and  the  leading  events  in  the  progress  of 
our  nation. 

In  presenting  this  work  the  teacher  should  be  guided  hy  con- 
stant reference  to  sequence  of  movements  in  the  progress  and 
development  of  our  nation.  This  will  guide  her  in  the  quality 
of  books  she  uses  for  reference,  the  quality  and  amount  of  sup- 
plementary reading,  and  the  amount  of  time  which  she  devotes 
to  certain  movements  and  ideas  in  history.     The  textbook  used 


127 

in  this  grade  should  not  be  a  condensed  text.  It  should  be  one 
written  anezif  for  the  purpose  of  presenting  to  fifth  grade  boys 
and  girls  the  interesting  and  important  men  and  women  of  our 
country. 

SUGGESTIONS  ON  PRESENTATION 
LIFE  OF  DANIEL  BOONE 

I.    Purpose  of  teacher — to  have  pupils  see 

1.  Boone  as  a  hunter,  pioneer,  and  road-maker 

2.  That  happenings   in   North   Carolina  and  Virginia  had   effects 

upon  Boone 

3.  That  Boone  performed  such  acts  that  he  led  the  way  in  set- 

tling a  new  country 

II.    Purpose  of  pupil    (aroused   and   stimulated   through   assignment  of 
teacher) — to  make  Boone's  life  a  problem  for  study  by 

1.  Seeing  the  interesting  events  in  his  life 

2.  Relating  him  to  other  men  of  his  time 

3.  Finding  out  what  good  he  did  for  his  country 

III.  Approach  to  the  lesson 

1.  An  explanatory  talk  by  the  teacher  which  shows  the  spirit  of 

adventure  in  the  men  of  Boone's  time 

2.  Questions  which  provoke  thought  and  stimulate  curiosity 

IV.  Assignment  plan^ 

1.  Assignment  of  reading  matter  in  text 

2.  Assignment  of  reading  matter  in  references 

3.  Assignment  of  special  points  of  value  for  special  work 

4.  Arrangements  for  individual  discussions 

5.  Arrangements  for  using  knowledge  gained  in  any  kindred  sub- 

ject 

Each  movement  expresses  some  general  idea  around  which 
the  development  should  center.  This  general  idea  may  be  con- 
nected historically  with  other  movements.  As  far  as  possible 
it  should  be  associated  with  everyday  life,  environment  and  ex- 
perience of  the  pupils.  This  development  of  the  theme  presents 
a  unity  of  thought  which,  if  not  chronological,  is  dynamic  and 
interesting  and  easily  understood  by  a  fifth  grade. 

The  group  names  should  be  thoroughly  discussed  and  illus- 
trated; the  meaning  of  such  words  as  pioneers,  statesmen,  etc., 
should  be  brought  out  clearly  in  the  introduction. 


^An  oral  discussion  or  description  by  the  teacher  is  far  more  stimu- 
lating to  children,  even  in  the  fifth  grade,  than  a  page  of  print.  But 
after  such  approach,  individual  efforts  upon  the  printed  page  should  be 
expected. 


I 


128 

Each  person  in  the  group  to  be  studied  represents  certain  defi- 
nite qualities  of  character,  which  should  be  emphasized  as  sym- 
bolic of  the  whole  movement.  The  historical  setting  may  be  made 
alive  by  pictures ;  outside  or  special  story  material ;  blackboard 
drawings,  maps  and  charts;  construction  work  of  various  kinds; 
dramatization  and  oral  and  written  compositions. 

If  Boone  be  a  tyi3e,  draw  or  make  Boonesboro,  so  that  the 
pioneer  fort  and  the  exciting  life  inside  its  walls  is  understood 
by  the  child. 

The  teacher  and  pupils  should  dramatize  scenes  from  the  life 
of  Boone  which  introduce  the  Indian  and  portray  the  problems 
that  faced  the  pioneer. 

If  the  type  hero  be  William  Penn,  the  Quaker  and  his  ways 
may  be  shown.  Early  settlements  in  New  Jersey  made  by  Penn's 
followers  should  be  located,  and  connected  w-ith  the  settlement 
at  Philadelphia.  The  treaty  with  the  Indian  might  be  dramatized. 
The  children  could  make  the  blue  sash,  the  collar  and  hat  like 
those  worn  by  Penn,  and  feathers,  wampum  and  beads  like 
those  worn  by  the  Indian.  A  geography  lesson  on  Philadelphia 
today  could  be  associated  with  the  Penn  story.  Children  who 
live  near  Philadelphia  would  be  interested  in  a  visit  to  Penn 
house,  which  stands  in  Fairmount  Park. 

Variety  and  originality  of  treatment  will  add  greatly  to  the 
value  of  the  group  study  by  the  class.  A  lesson  on  Longfellow 
should  be  entirely  different  from  one  on  Alexander  Hamilton, 
but  the  children  should  feel  that  each  man  helped  America  in  his 
own  way. 

Quotations  may  be  learned :  the  quaint  sayings  of  Franklin ; 
or  the  noble  words  of  Lincoln ;  or  phrases  describing  various 
personages,  as  "Edison,  the  Modern  Wizard,"  or  "Dewey,  the 
Hero  of  Manila  Bay."  Pictures  should  familiarize  the  chil- 
dren with  the  personality  of  the  characters  studied  and  an  occa- 
sional history  game  or  history  match  should  be  used  to  emphasize 
the  f^fcts  that  have  been  learned. 

/  EXPLORERS 

v^hristopher  Columbus,  Ferdinand  DeSoto,  Father  James  Mar- 
quette. The  movement  centers  around  the  finding  of  America, 
the  idea  of  discovery.  It  dwells  upon  the  qualities  of  endurance, 
perseverance,  kindness,  cruelty,  tact.  It  presents  the  work  of 
Spain  and  France,  with  their  ideas  and  methods.     In  introducing 


129 

this  group  some  conception  of  Europe  should  be  given.  The  con- 
ditions of  medieval  commerce  and  the  new  impulse  that  led  to 
the  discovery  might  be  shown  through  simple  story  work  illus- 
trating the  life  in  Europe  in  the  fifteenth  century,  and  the  need 
and  desire  for  the  products  of  the  East. 


SETTLEES 

William  Bradford,  Lord  Baltimore,  William  Penn.  The  move- 
ment centers  around  the  idea  of  settling  America,  or  making 
homes  in  the  new  land.  It  presents  the  difficulties  and  trials  of 
the  founders  of  our  nation.  It  shows  the  English  notion  of 
starting  colonies.  The  movements  should  teach  the  necessity  of 
religious  freedom  and  impress  the  idea  of  tolerance  towards 
others.  The  types  suggested  are  the  Puritan,  the  Catholic,  and 
the  Quaker.  Each  stands  for  idealism,  religious  zeal,  and  a  broad 
outlook  on  life.  Each  suffered  for  his  faith.  Each  is  the  founder 
of  a  great  state.  Each  represents  broadly  the  peculiar  character- 
istics of  the  New  England,  Southern  and  Middle  Colonies. 

PIONEERS 

Daniel  Boone,  George  Rogers  Clark,  Lewis  and  Clark.  This 
movement  has  for  the  central  theme  the  winning  of  the  continent 
from  its  ancient  owners,  the  Indians,  and  the  struggle  by  the 
settlers  for  mastery  over  the  forces  of  nature.  It  represents  the 
environment  and  customs  and  character  of  the  Indian,  his  wrongs, 
his  cruelties,  his  final  conquest.  While  the  story  shows  the  daring 
and  bravery  of  the  pioneer  it  should  do  justice  to  the  Indian,  who 
is  fighting  for  his  own  home.  It  also  emphasizes  the  great 
struggle  with  nature  itself — the  forests  and  mountain  ranges,  the 
rivers  and  wild  animal  life  that  were  conquered  by  the  indomi- 
table courage  of  the  pioneer.  The  life  of  the  people  in  early 
days  in  the  West  should  be  pictured  well.  The  part  they  played 
in  exploring  the  new  country  and  their  aid  in  securing  this  land 
for  settlement  should  be  emphasized. 


SOLSIEBS 

George  Washington,  Ulysses  S.  Grant,  Robert  E.  Lee,  George 
Dewey.  The  central  idea  is  here  fighting  for  America.  It  might 
be  considered  under  three  heads.  Trouble  with  the  mother ^  conn- 
try  would  b€  presented  through  the  story  of  George  Washington 
and  the  Revolution.  In  presenting  Washington,  the  human  and 
9  GEOG 


130 

tender  quality  of  his  nature  should  be  shown,  and  the  tremendous 
debt  we  owe  him  today  should  be  emphasized.  The  second  type 
gives  the  idea  of  trouble  in  the  family.  This  centers  around  the 
war  period,  using  Grant  as  the  unifying  figure.  Lee  should  be 
presented  with  Grant,  however,  as  the  type  of  the  ideal  soldier. 
The  two  men  should  be  associated  in  the  children's  minds  with 
the  Civil  War  struggle.  The  third  type  gives  the  thought  of 
trouble  itnth  our  neighbors.  In  presenting  Admiral  Dewey  and 
the  war  with  Spain  the  movement  shows  the  work  of  the  navy 
as  well  as  the  army  and  brings  the  idea  of  fighting  for  America 
down  to  the  present  day.  The  essence  of  the  movement  is  the 
heroic  quality  in  men.  It  teaches  self -sacrifice,  courage,  the 
meaning  of  obedience,  the  power  to  act  quickly  and  efficiently  in 
an  emergency.  Generosity  toward  the  enemy  is  another  element 
to  be  emphasized  in  the  treatment  of  the  group. 

STATESMEN 

.  y  Benjamin  Franklin,  Alexander  Hamilton,  Thomas  Jefferson, 
^  Abraham  Lincoln.  The  movement  idea  is  here  making  America 
into  a  nation.  It  should  present  the  idea  of  service  and  achieve- 
ment through  the  "building  up  processes  of  peace."  Franklin 
represents  the  builder  during  the  stormy  days  of  the  Revolution. 
His  life  is  the  life  of  the  young  native.  His  part  in  the  signing 
of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  his  successful  efforts  in 
France,  and  his  participation  in  the  making  of  the  constitution 
should  be  shown.  The  personality  of  Franklin  offers  lessons  on 
thrift,  on  humor,  and  on  tact  in  dealing  with  men.  His  story  is 
a  dramatic  history  of  his  day.  Hamilton  and  Jefferson  show  the 
later  construction  period.  They  should  be  presented  as  the  men 
who  helped  Washington  start  the  big  machine  of  the  new  govern- 
ment. Fifth  grade  pupils  can  appreciate  the  fact  that  the  work 
of  Jefferson  and  Hamilton  is  still  felt  in  the  life  of  our  nation 
today.  The  class  should  associate  the  two  men  as  workers  under 
Washington  for  America.  Lincoln  is  the  supreme  figure  in  the 
"making  of  a  nation"  movement.  His  difficulties,  his  stupendous 
problems,  his  nobility  of  nature,  his  efforts  to  hold  together  the 
government  created  by  Franklin,  Washington,  Jefferson  and 
Hamilton,  his  tragic  life  and  death  make  this  movement  one  of 
the  most  important  in  otlr  history  teachings.  Franklin,  Jefferson, 
Hamilton  and  Lincoln  each  had  a  life  full  of  excitement  and 
adventure.    Each  gave  much  to  America. 


131 


AUTHORS 


James  Fenimore  Cooper,  John  Q.  Whittier,  Henry  W.  Long- 
fellow. This  movement  has  for  its  theme  service  through  zurit- 
ing.  It  teaches  that  writing  books,  sing-ing  songs  and  making 
poems  is  also  work  for  America.  Each  member  of  the  group 
may  be  associated  with  other  movements  which  have  been 
already  studied.  Cooper  wrote  about  the  Indians  and  the  Revo- 
lution. Whittier  made  the  people  think  about  slavery  and  the 
necessity  of  freeing  the  negro.  Longfellow's  poetry  is  dear  to 
all  Americans  because  he  taught  men  to  love  America.  The 
"Song  of  Hiawatha,"  "Paul  Revere's  Ride,"  "Miles  Standish," 
the  Song  of  Union  in  the  "Building  of  the  Ship"  may  be  used 
with  the  children  to  prove  that  Longfellow  turned  history  into 
poetry,  and  that  his  poems  are  America  set  to  music. 

I 

INVENTOES  AND   BXTILDERS   OF   BTTSINESS 

Peter   Cooper,  Thomas  A.   Edison,   Cyrus  McCormick.     The 

central  idea  here  is  giving  wealth,  power  and  new  ideas  to 
America.  It  shows  the  value  of  machinery  in  daily  life  and 
presents  the  inventor  as  a  benefactor  to  mankind.  It  might  be 
introduced  by  a  comparison  of  life  in  modem  New  Jersey  with 
the  life  of  our  great  grandfathers.  A  journey  across  the  state 
before  the  railroad  existed  would  introduce  Peter  Cooper,  who 
financed  the  beginning  of  railroading  in  America.  The  early 
methods  of  travel,  the  first  railroad  in  New  Jersey,  should  be 
illustrated  by  picture  and  story.  Peter  Cooper  himself  could  be 
presented  as  a  type  of  the  public  spirited  citizen  who  used  his 
money  for  the  benefit  of  others.  McCormick's  contribution 
through  the  invention  of  the  reaper  should  be  emphasized  be- 
cause of  its  far  reaching  influence  upon  the  agricultural  develop- 
ment of  our  country.  Edison  is  a  fine  illustration  of  the  im- 
portance of  the  great  inventor  in  our  daily  life.  What  Edison 
has  done  for  our  homes  may  be  easily  illustrated.  The  rise  of 
each  man  from  obscurity  to  world  fame  is  a  stor}'  full  of 
dramatic  and  everyday  interest  to  a  class.  As  Edison  Hves  m 
New  Jersey  he  is  peculiarly  a  state  hero  and  the  meaning  of  his 
life  should  be  emphasized— his  genius  and  personality,  and  the 
gift  he  has  given  the  world. 


132 
BENEFACT0S8 

Horace  Mann,  Clara  Barton.  The  theme  of  the  last  move- 
ment is  opportunity  and  happiness  for  all.  Horace  Mann  repre- 
sents the  new  idea  of  education  for  all  children  through  the 
public  schools  of  America.  His  love  for  children  and  his  work 
for  them  should  be  shown.  The  old  fashioned  schools  with  their 
queer  books,  rough  equipment,  stern  discipline,  may  be  con- 
trasted with  the  modern  school  of  today.  The  children  should 
also  suggest  their  own  conception  of  an  ideal  school.  Clara 
Barton  shows  that  women  as  well  as  men  are  builders  of 
America.  She  presents  the  idea  of  universal  service,  the  Red 
Cross.  The  topic  may  be  introduced  with  the  story  of  Florence 
Nightingale.  It  should  develop  the  work  of  the  Red  Cross  as 
putting  into  action  the  divine  command  "do  unto  others  as  ye 
would  that  they  should  do  unto  you."  It  means  care  for  all  who 
are  in  need,  suffering  or  distress.  The  varied  activities  of  the  Red 
Cross  may  be  shown  by  pictures,  stories,  newspapers  and  maga- 
zine articles.  Its  work  is  on  the  battle-field,  where  it  helps  friend 
and  foe  alike.  Its  aid  in  times  of  flood,  in  famine  districts,  fol- 
lowing cyclones  or  earthquake  disasters,  should  be  discussed  and 
special  instances  found.  It  is  not  to  be  overlooked  that  Clara 
Barton  taught  one  of  the  first  public  schools  in  New  Jersey,  at 
Bordentown. 

CIVICS 

Time  allotment,  one  recitation  a  week. 

In  teaching  civics  to  grammar  grade  pupils  the  point  of 
emphasis  must  still  be  upon  the  civic  life  of  their  immediate  com- 
munity. The  pupils  are  active  factors  in  the  school  and  com- 
munity life.  The  function  of  civics  is  to  aid  them  in  interpreting 
this  life  and  to  encourage  them  to  be  more  and  more  responsible 
for  right  actions  toward  their  playmates,  the  members  of  their 
families  and  the  adult  members  of  the  community  groups.  When 
the  life  of  the  school  gives  the  pupils  training  in  the  right  way  of 
acting  toward  the  people  with  zvhom  they  are  directly  associated, 
it  gives  them  the  best  basis  for  right  action  toward  the  state 
when  they  become  more  mature  individuals. 

In  grades  V  to  VII  inclusive  the  problems  in  civics  should 
center  around  what  the  children  do  in  their  immediate  commu- 
nities, how  they  act,  how  their  acts  influence  other  people,  and 


133 

how  they  are  influenced  by  what  older  people  have  done  for 
them.  For  example,  food  and  clothing  furnished  by  parents; 
the  good  roads  over  which  they  travel,  furnished  by  county  and 
state ;  schools  furnished  by  the  state ;  health  protection  furnished 
by  local  and  state  boards  of  health — ^all  these  show  to  the  boys 
and  girls  that  much  has  been  done  for  their  welfare.  In  this 
way  they  learn  how  to  act  in  school,  on  the  street,  in  community 
gatherings ;  how  to  act  toward  their  township  or  town  officials ; 
what  it  means  to  have  good  roads,  good  streets,  good  schools, 
good  fire  protection,  good  police  protection,  provisions  for  good 
health.  As  they  study  how  people  act  toward  each  other  it  is 
very  important  that  they  have  opportunities  to  see  how  one  group 
works  in  order  that  another  group  may  be  benefited. 

COimSE  OF  STTTDT 

The  work  as  outlined  in  this  grade  should  be  given  in  connec- 
tion with  the  regular  work  in  hygiene.  In  planning  for  the  work 
as  suggested,  the  teacher  should  refer  to  the  monograph  on 
Physical  Training  and  use  the  outlines  and  suggestions  there  in 
connection  with  those  offered  in  this  monograph.  The  teacher 
should  constantly  check  herself  and  determine  to  what  degree  she 
is  continually  stimulating  her  pupils  to  act  rightly  in  the  given 
situations  rather  than  to  talk  about  the  acts  of  citizenship.  // 
her  boys  and  girls  think  of  themselves  as  young  citizens  in  the 
schoolroom;  on  the  playground,  on  the  street,  and  at  home,  and 
carry  out  the  precepts  and  practices  of  the  schoolroom,  she  will 
he  doing  vital  civic  teaching. 

There  are  certain  old-time  virtues  which  are  as  indispensable 
in  the  education  of  a  child  today,  as  they  were  in  former  days. 
Obedience  is  as  commendable  now  as  it  was  in  the  days  of 
Samuel.  Reverence  still  marks  the  man  with  a  true  soul.  Polite- 
ness wins  the  approbation  of  all.  Truthfulness  is  as  praise- 
worthy in  every  boy  and  girl  of  today  as  it  was  in  George 
Washington.  Industry  is  necessary  to  all  respectable  and  self 
respecting  citizens.  The  catalog  of  virtues  expected  of  every 
true  citizen  does  not  stop  with  these.  Many  others  should  con- 
stantly be  kept  in  mind  by  the  good  teacher,  and  children  should 
aspire  to  their  continued  practice  through  the  influence  of  the 
teacher.  These  are  selected  as  the  more  important  ones  for 
special  emphasis  during  the  fifth  year's  work. 


134 

Truthfulness.  How  can  truthfulness  be  best  taught?  This 
is  a  question  that  confronts  every  teacher.  For  instance,  it  is 
positively  known  that  children  do  not  always  practice  truthful- 
ness as  a  result  of  their  being  told  to  tell  the  truth  at  all  times. 
In  other  words,  the  direct  method  is  frequently  used  without 
results.  Modern  pedagogy  also  greatly  questions  the  one  who 
teaches  her  children  to  tell  the  truth  because  it  is  merely  right 
and  good.  The  inquiring  mind  of  the  child  should  have  a  better 
reason.  The  good  old  saying  "As  ye  would  that  others  should 
do  unto  you,  do  ye  also  likewise  unto  them,"  will  be  of  value 
to  the  teacher  here.  Every  child  has  an  appreciation  of  justice 
especially  when  he  is  the  person  most  concerned.  If  the  teacher 
can  help  him  to  put  himself  in  the  place  of  the  other  person  he 
is  quite  likely  to  see  that  telling  the  truth  promotes  not  only  his 
welfare,  but  the  welfare  of  all. 

It  is  quite  impossible  for  the  teacher  toi  invent  a  situation 
effectively.  The  teaching  of  this  subject  is  to  be  done  when  the 
situation  arises.  Few  teachers  lack  abundant  opportunities. 
When  the  situation  does  arise  no  time  should  be  spared  and  the 
utmost  patience  of  the  teacher  should  be  exercised.  Then,  too, 
children  should  be  dealt  with  individually  and  privately.  A  boy 
should  not  be  embarrassed  because  he  told  a  lie,  and  thereby  be 
prompted  to  tell  more  lies.  For  instance,  the  teacher  has  evi- 
dence that  a  pupil  is  doing  dishonest  work.  A  private  session 
with  that  individual  pupil  is  necessary,  and  the  treatment  must 
be  indirect.  A  direct  accusation,  even  in  private,  would  result 
in  most  cases  in  another  lie.  The  conscience  of  the  child  should 
be  aroused  regarding  the  credit  of  a  boy  who  does  honest  work 
and  the  credit  of  the  boy  who  does  dishonest  work,  and  how 
each  is  concerned.  The  futility  of  a  lie  should  be  set  forth, 
showing  that  the  real  situation  is  not  changed.  Do  not  ask  the 
child  to  accuse  himself  by  a  confession.  A  thoroughly  awakened 
conscience  is  accusation  enough.  The  teacher  should  stop  when 
the  conscience  is  aroused.  ■  Should  the  method  not  be  effective 
at  first,  one  should  be  patient,  and  repeat  the  procedure.  It  is 
hard  to  right-about-face  immediately  in  this  respect. 

In  discussing  public  characters,  give  the  child  an  opportunity 
to  express  his  ideas  regarding  truthfulness,  and  his  estimate  of 
the  man  whose  word  is  as  good  as  his  bond.  The  biographies 
of  national  characters  frequently  give  splendid,  illustrations  of 


135 

truthfulness.  The  class  will  readily  grasp  the  situation  and  fully 
appreciate  a  truthful  Washington.  In  dealing  with  children 
collectively  it  is  well  to  discuss  and  memorize  pertinent  quota- 
tions and  good  maxims,  such  as  "Truth,  crushed  to  earth,  shall 
rise  again;" 

Above  all  things,  always  speak  the  truth; 

Your  word  must  be  your  bond  through  life. — Haliburton 

This  above  all;  to  thine  ownself  be  true 
And  it  must  follow  as  the  night  the  day 
Thou  can'st  not  then  be  false  to  any  man. — Shakespeare 

He  is  a  freeman  whom  the  truth  makes  free 
And  all  are  slaves  beside. — Cowper 

Biblical  stories  and  stories  wherein  truthfulness  is  exercised 
at  great  physical,  social  or  financial  sacrifice  should  be  read.  Let 
the  story  tell  its  own  tale.  Little  comment  is  necessary.  Let 
the  pupils  feel  and  appreciate.  The  moral  ought  not  to  be 
attached  or  commented  an. 

Situations  which  are  material  for  class  use : 

1.  A  game  of  ball  in  which  both  sides  tell  the  truth  by  playing 
fair. 

2.  A  written  lesson  in  which  each  member  of  the  class  tells 
the  truth  by  doing  his  own  work. 

3.  A  school  that  has  for  its  motto  "Act  the  truth." 

4.  During  play,  a  window  is  broken.  The  one  who  breaks  it 
admits  the  accident.  All  pupils  agree  to  help  pay  for  the 
window,  if  necessary,  because  all  pupils  were  interested  in  the 
play.  Problem:  allow  pupils  to  apply  principle  to  their  own 
play  and  tell  how  the  application  was  made.  A  pupil  happens 
to  be  late  at  school.     How  does  it  pay  him  to  be  truthful  ? 

5.  Men  who  work  on  the  farm  or  in  the  factory  are  required 
to  report  to  work  promptly.  Present  a  scene  in  which  one  who 
is  late  tells  his  employer  truthfully  about  the  matter. 

Politeness.     Som.eone  has  said: 

Politeness  is  to  do  and  say 

The  kindest  thing  in  the  kindest  way. 

Politeness  is  indeed  a  virtue  to  be  coveted.  The  best  teaching 
here  is  the  constant  example  of  the  teacher.  A  child  is  never 
too  young  to  receive  the  utmost  politeness  from  his  teacher.  The 
schoolroom  should  be  characterized  by  politeness. 


136 

A  beautiful  exercise  at  the  opening  of  school  in  the  morning 
is  to  have  pupils  give  little  plays  in  which  polite  behavior  is  set 
forth,  such  as  raising  the  hat,  accepting  a  gift  with  thanks, 
placing  a  chair  for  a  lady  at  the  table,  removing  the  hat  while 
standing  in  the  presence  of  a  lady,  picking  up  a  package  that 
has  been  dropped,  running  an  errand,  giving  aid  to  older  people. 
Polite  behavior  at  the  table  can  be  well  taught  by  using  the 
teacher's  desk  as  a  table.  A  make-believe  breakfast,  dinner  or 
supper  can  be  gone  through  with  profit  and  interest  to  the 
children.  Politeness  in  the  home,  such  as  rising  when  a  lady 
enters,  stepping  aside  when  one  wants  to  pass  through  a  door- 
way, giving  one's  seat  to  another,  quiet  and  respectful  conversa- 
tion, affords  field  for  dramatic  work. 

Pupils  should  be  taught  that  it  is  impolite  to  chew  gum,  to  pick 
the  teeth,  or  to  trim  the  finger  nails  in  public.  The  school  should 
.see  to  it  that  all  pupils  refrain  from  these  practices  while  in  school. 

Conduct  in  travel  should  be  taught.  Children  should  know 
what  is  expected  of  a  polite  person  on  the  street,  trolley  and  rail- 
road. This  is  especially  needful  for  children  going  to  and  from 
school  by  train,  trolley  or  wagon  transportation.  Children  should 
be  taught  that  it  is  impolite  to  engage  in  loud  and  boisterous  talk 
and  laughter.  Many  people  judge  the  whole  school  system  and 
the  merits  of  the  transportation  system  by  the  conduct  of  pupils 
on  street  cars,  railway  or  wagons.  Schoolroom  practice  in 
pleasant,  modest-toned  conversation  is  excellent  civics  training. 
Each  schoolroom  could  form  a  civics  club  to  encourage  polite 
speaking. 

Stories  which  show  the  chivalry  of  boys  and  men  toward 
women  are  interesting  and  of  great  worth.  A  chivalrous  polite- 
ness in  a  boy  is  admirable  and  the  kind  heart  of  a  girl  is  to  be 
praised.  Children  should  learn  to  enjoy  doing  that  which  pleases 
others.  This  they  can  learn  quickly  if  the  teacher  habitually  does 
things  which  please  the  children;  if  she  shows  that  she  is  pleased 
when  they  do  acts  of  politeness  for  her.  For  example,  when 
a  boy  cares  for  the  fire  or  ventilates  the  room  he  should  receive 
the  teacher's  thanks ;  when  the  girls  arrange  library  books  or  tidy 
up  the  room,  as  they  should  be  accustomed  to  doing,  the  teacher 
should  show  her  approval.  When  a  group  of  pupils  does  a  kind- 
ness for  the  class  or  room  the  pupils  should  be  ready  to  respond 
with  a  nod  of  approval  or  a  quiet  "thank  you." 


^37 

Additional  problem  for  application.  Select  two  biblical  char- 
acters and  show  their  acts  of  politeness ;  two  men  from  American 
history ;  two  from  American  business. 

Present  a  situation  in  which  politeness  is  shown  on  playground. 

Industry.  The  thrift  movement  throughout  the  United  States 
suggests  that  educators  have  sensed  a  need  in  this  direction. 
Thrift  is  akin  to  industry  and  cannot  exist  without  it,  and  indus- 
try is  without  doubt  a  greater  virtue  than  is  commonly  realized. 
Even  the  religious  character  of  a  man  who  is  slothful  is  ques- 
tioned. 

It  is  possible  that  education,  especially  of  the  bookish  type, 
does  not  always  promote  industry.  Farmers  complain  that  their 
children  sometimes  lose  the  industry  of  the  farm  when  they  con- 
tinue their  education  through  the  high  school.  Children  should 
learn  that  the  happiest  man  in  the  world  is  the  man  with  a  job. 
Lessons  which  contrast  the  working  man  with  the  loafer  are 
valuable. 

Pictures  such  as  Millet's  "Gleaners,"  "Sheep-Shearers,"  "The 
Sower,"  give  a  wholesome  atmosphere  to  the  classroom.  A 
study  of  these  pictures  brings  forth  their  worth. 

An  industrious  class  and  an  industrious  teacher  will  not  permit 
the  windows  to  become  dirty,  the  floors  unclean,  the  walls  of  the 
schoolroom  unsightly,  the  school  grounds  and  the  schoolroom 
littered  and  untidy. 

Lincoln's  birthday  offers  a  splendid  opportunity  for  the  teach- 
ing of  industry.  His  boyhood  affords  a  fine  example.  It  should 
be  pointed  out  to  boys  and  girls  that  his  habit  of  industry  was  a 
great  factor  in  his  success. 

The  industrious  career  of  Franklin  will  captivate  the  interest 
of  every  boy  and  girl  and  every  life  will  be  enriched  that  appro- 
priates the  words  of  his  ripest  years : 

At  the  workingman's  house  hunger  looks  in,  but  does  not  enter;  nor 
will  the  bailiff  or  the  constable  enter;  for  industry  pays  debts,  but 
despair   measureth   them.     .     .     . 

An  hour's  industry  will  do  more  to  produce  cheerfulness,  suppress 
evil  humors,  and  retrieve  your  affairs,  than  a  month's  moaning.     .     .     • 

Sloth  makes  all  things  difficult,  but  industry  all  easy;  and  he  that 
riseth  late,  must  trot  all  day,  and  shall  scarce  overtake  his  business  at 
night;    while  laziness  travels  so  slowly  that  poverty  soon  overtakes  him. 

Boys  and  girls  who  do  regular  work  at  home  should  be  praised. 
The  educational  value  of  the  home  chores  should  be  magnified 


138 

in  the  schoolroom.  When  there  is  pleasing  recognition  made  of 
these  activities  boys  and  girls  do  them  with  a  greater  pride.  No 
work  is  too  menial  for  the  true  man  and  the  true  woman,  and 
every  boy  and  girl  should  grow  up  with  the  guiding  principle, 
"Whatsoever  thy  hand  findeth  to  do,  do  it  with  all  thy  might." 

Problems  for  application  :  Use  of  recess  time  in  vigorous  play; 
clean-up  squad  for  playground ;  school  garden  club ;  home  yard 
club. 

Obedience.  It  is  agreed  that  only  that  teacher  can  teach  obedi- 
ence who  conducts  a  well-disciplined  school. 

To  obey  is  to  do  what  the  other  fellow  wants  you  to.  In  other 
words,  it  is  doing  what  pleases  the  other  fellow ;  and  most  suc- 
cessful people  like  to  please  the  other  fellow. 

Much  disobedience  is  not  intentional  disobedience,  but  is  rebel- 
lion against  method.  Most  persons  who  are  told  to  stop  react 
by  going  on — at  least  a  little  way.  Then,  too,  most  persons, 
while  they  do  like  to  please  others,  object  to  gratifying  the  mere 
exercise  of  authority. 

Humanity  is  prolific  in  negative  reactions.  In  teaching  obedi- 
ence the  child  must  be  taught  to  control  his  negative  responses, 
and  he  must  be  taught  at  the  same  time  never  to  exercise  authority 
for  authority's  sake. 

The  well-trained  cadet  stands  for  review  when  some  one  shouts 
"Attention!"  He  has  learned  to  obey.  Why?  Because  he  fully 
understands  what  is  meant  by  the  command  and  because  he  is 
aware  that  commands  are  necessary  in  order  that  an  army  may 
be  manoeuvered.  The  child  in  the  classroom  must  be  taught  that 
rules  and  regulations  are  not  imposed  so  that  a  teacher  may  ex- 
ercise authority,  but  in  order  that  the  general  good  of  the  class- 
room may  be  consented.  For  instance,  studyiny  aloud  and  talk- 
ing aloud  are  not  offenses  in  themselves,  but  in  the  classroom  they 
cannot  be  permitted,  because  that  would  transgress  the  rights  of 
others.  This  general  condition  must  be  constantly,  patiently  and 
untiringly  explained  to  children.  The  child  will  see  further  that 
all  law  and  rules  of  order  are  instituted,  not  that  the  rights  of 
men  shall  be  denied,  but  that  they  may  be  maintained  and  en- 
larged. 

Biblical  sayings  and  selections  should  be  memorized.  We 
must  teach  children  intelligent  obedience  and  not  obedience  for 
obedience's  sake.  Where  the  need  for  obedience  is  understood 
obedience  will  follow. 


139 

Class  reading:  "Message  to  Garcia,"  "Paul  Revere's  Ride." 
Class  applications:  Why  obey  policeman's  signals?  Why 
obey  "safety  first"  signals?  Why  obey  implicitly  in  fire  drill? 
Reverence.  Boldness  of  conduct  appeals  to  few.  Bold  con- 
duct, especially  on  the  part  of  children,  invariably  provokes 
drastic  comment.  Kindness,  thoughtfulness,  humility,  reverence 
for  the  maimed,  the  infirm,  one's  elders,  and  those  in  high 
places,  should  be  a  product  of  public  school  teaching,  and  should 
mark  the  behavior  of  the  boys  and  girls  of  our  schools.  Could 
the  public  see  more  of  these  virtues  practiced  by  school  children 
on  the  street,  in  the  home,  in  school,  and  in  public,  there  would  be 
more  pride  in  our  schools  and  a  still  stronger  support.  Rever- 
ence is  a  civic  virtue  and  all  acts  of  children  which  point  toward 
such  a  spirit  should  be  praised.  The  study  of  officials  of  state, 
heroes  and  heroines,  educators,  clergymen  and  the  President  of 
the  United  States  should  be  accompanied  by  a  reverential  respect. 
There  is  small  place  for  adverse  criticism.  Let  the  good  they 
have  done  be  magnified.  The  liberty  of  a  criticizing  public  too 
often  runs  to  license.     President  Eliot  says : 

The  faculty  for  discerning  quickly  and  surely  excellences  and  virtues 
in  persons,  peoples,  nature  and  art  is  an  immeasurably  more  valuable 
and  useful  faculty  than  the  faculty  for  seeing  weaknesses  and  sins.  It 
ought  to  be  carefully  and  incessantly  cultivated  by  school,  college  and  the 
experience  of  life,  for  it  is  capable  of  contributing  greatly  to  happiness 
as  well  as  to  material  success.  The  faculty  of  discerning  and  using 
conspicuous  merit  in  other  people  distinguishes  the  most  successful  ad- 
ministrators, rulers  and  men  of  business. 

The  best  flag  salute  is  accompanied  with  a  patriotic  reverence. 
The  uncovered  head  should  bespeak  a  deeply  sincere  heart  that 
would  give  one's  life  for  one's  country.  In  the  best  schools  the 
daily  flag  salute  is  thus  conducted.  In  one  county  of  the  state 
the  following  plan  has  been  adopted.  This  or  some  other  good 
form  should  be  universal. 

As  a  part  of  the  opening  exercises,  during  the  singing  of  America, 
two  worthy  pupils  take  the  flag  from  the  wall  or  from  a  closet  and  stand 
before  the  school  holding  it  spread  out  high  between  them.  When  the 
first  stasza  of  the  song  is  ended  the  school  pauses  and  gives  the  flag 
salute— "I  pledge  allegiance  to  my  flag,  and  to  the  republic  for  which  it 
stands,  one  nation  indivisible,  with  liberty  and  justice  for  all."  The  flag 
is  then  folded  in  three  or  four  folds  and  the  two  pupils  who  have  it  in 
custody  march  out  of  the  room,  the  other  pupils  following,  while  the 
school  continues  to  sing  America.    The  flag  is  unfurled  on  the  staff  out- 


140 

side,  the  pupils  return  to  the  building  and  stand  before  the  teacher. 
The  stanza  finished,  the  singing  stops  while  the  pupils  salute  the  teacher, 
and  the  spokesman  of  the  two  pupils  who  carried  out  the  flag  states: 
"The  flag  of  our  country  is  flying."  The  song  is  finished  and  the  school 
is  seated. 

At  the  close  of  school,  when  the  children  are  all  ready  to  go  home, 
the  pupils  rise,  the  two  custodians  of  the  flag  come  forth  and  salute 
the  teacher.  She  says:  "Haul  down  the  colors,  boys."  The  school 
begins  the  singing  of  America  and  the  two  pupils  go  out,  take  down 
the  flag,  and  return  to  the  front  of  the  room.  After  finishing  the  stanza 
the  school  pauses,  and  the  pupils  salute  the  flag  as  in  the  morning.  The 
flag  is  then  carefully  folded  up  or  placed  on  the  wall;  the  song  is 
completed,  and  school  is  dismissed. 

Problems  for  application :  room  or  class  entertain  aged 
soldiers;    room  or  class  have  Fathers'  or  Mothers'  Day. 

While  the  teaching  of  these  virtues  is  to  some  extent  a  by- 
product of  the  classroom,  nevertheless  such  teaching  is  of  para- 
mount importance.  When  the  manliness  of  a  boy  or  the  woman- 
liness of  a  girl  is  considered  these  are  our  standards.  In  the 
business  of  training  up  boys  and  girls  in  the  way  they  should 
go,  these  virtues  must  be  constantly  kept  in  mind.  Various  treat- 
ments have  been  suggested.  Kindly  and  honorable  recognition, 
the  story,  the  indirect  comparison,  memory  gems,  study  of 
biography,  pictures,  the  private  conference,  schoolroom  prac- 
tices and  the  practice  of  the  teacher,  dramatic  presentation,  the 
fable,  morning  exercises,  and  special  day  programs  are  many 
ways  by  which  a  teacher  may  work  to  these  ends.  A  teacher 
should  frequently  ask  herself,  "Are  my  pupils  truthful,  polite, 
industrious,  obedient  and  reverent?"  and  boys  and  girls  should 
be  proud  to  be  known  by  these  virtues. 

Honor  and  shame  from  no  condition  rise. 

Act  well  your  part;    there  all  the  honor  lies. — Pope 

SUPPLEMENTARY  AND  REFERENCE  BOOKS  FOR  PUPILS 
AND  TEACHER 

GRADE  V 

Bass,  Florence.    Pioneer  Stories.    Heath,  Boston 

Bruce,  H.  A.  B.    Daniel  Boone.     Macmillan,  N.  Y. 

McMurry,  C.  A.    Pioneers  on  Sea  and  Land.     Macmillan,  N.  Y. 

Putnam,  M.  L.     Children's  Life  of  Abraham  Lincoln.     McClurg,  Chicago 

Southworth,  G.  V.  D.     Builders  of  our  Country.     Appleton,  N.  Y. 

Thwaites,  R.  G.     Daniel  Boone.     Macmillan,  N.  Y. 

Thwaites,  R.  G.     George  Rogers  Clark.     Macmillan,  N.  Y. 

Welsh,  L.  D.     Colonial  Days.     Educational  Pub.  Co.  N.  Y. 


141 

GRADE  VI 
HISTORY 

Time  allotment,  three  recitations  a  week.     Much  of  the  work 
should  be  given  as  a  part  of  the  regular  work  in  reading. 
Textbook  in  hands  of  pupils. 

Purposes  paramount : 

1.  To  give  emphasis  to  those  phases  of  European  history  that 
had  most  to  do  with  the  beginning  of  our  country. 

2.  To  awaken  interest  in  a  few  of  the  great  heroes  and  heroines 
of  former  times. 

3.  To  give  a  basis  for  the  detailed  study  of  American  history 
which  is  to  come  in  grades  VII  and  VIII. 

4.  To  show  reasons  why  all  people  should  sense  their  obliga- 
tion to  great  leaders. 

5.  To  inculcate  motives  of  willingness  to  serve  society  through 
the  state. 

6.  To  make  common,  everyday  civic  actions  subjects  of  study. 

In  presenting  history  to  sixth  grade  pupils  at  least  two  points 
of  view  should  be  kept  in  mind.  The  first  thing  of  importance  to 
remember  is  that  this  work  in  history  should  be  instrumental  in 
getting  the  pupils  into  such  an  attitude  of  mind  that  they  will  be 
prepared  for  a  somewhat  detailed  study  of  American  history, 
both  because  of  the  method  of  work,  and  because  of  the  stress 
given  to  our  relation  to  English  history  throughout  the  sixth 
year's  work.  The  second  thing  of  value  to  note  is  the  fact  that 
this  year's  work  will  give  to  the  boys  and  girls  who  leave  school 
at  the  end  of  this  grade  their  only  basis  for  seeing  the  relation  of 
our  country  to  the  countries  of  the  old  world.  They  should  begin 
to  see  that  our  civilization  is  a  partial  outgrowth  of  the  civiliza- 
tion of  the  Greek,  the  Roman,  the  A.nglo-Saxon  and  the  Teuton. 

With  the  two  points  of  view  in  mind,  the  work  in  sixth  grade 
history  must  necessarily  be  confined  within  definite  limits.  It  is 
not  a  scientific  study  of  history.  On  the  other  hand,  it  does  pro- 
pose to  show  how  the  habits  and  customs  of  a  people  affect  the 
life  of  the  following  age.  It  should  make  the  pupil  feel  that  a 
study  of  the  lives  of  these  peoples  is  decidedly  worth  while.  In 
this  grade's  work  there  is  the  greatest  opportunity  possible  to 
develop  worthy  ideals  and  motives.    From  this  study  the  children 


142 

should  learn  that  the  motives  of  a  people  are  determining  factors 
in  proving  whether  or  not  that  people  is  beneficial  to  society. 
English  history  is  more  important  to  us  because  it  deals  with  that 
phase  of  history  from  which  so  much  of  our  political  life  sprang. 

The  work  in  sixth  grade  history  will  be  a  partial  basis  for 
giving  meaning  to  present  day  civic  duties.  With  a  reasonable 
amount  of  workable  historical  background  the  child  can  deal  in- 
telligently with  questions  that  confronted  the  citizens  of  former 
times.  He  will  also  have  a  better  opportunity  to  make  present 
day  civic  problems  subjects  for  actual  classroom  discussions. 

With  this  beginning  in  mind  there  yet  remains  continual  prac- 
tice in  everyday  civic  duties  until  the  correct  habits  are  made. 
For  example,  a  study  of  chivalry  gives  a  basis  for  ideals  of 
bravery,  courtesy  and  kindness.  When  the  child  sees  these  prin- 
ciples in  the  lives  of  former  heroes  he  has  an  example  which  may 
serve  to  guide  him  in  his  present  choices  of  classroom  behavior, 
playground  attitude  and  home  habits  of  mind. 

The  teacher  of  the  sixth  grade  should  read  the  entire  history 
monograph  very  carefully.  The  point  of  view  given  in  the  fifth 
grade  is  as  essential  for  her  as  it  is  for  the  fifth  grade  teacher. 
Therefore  she  can  begin  her  work  with  the  thought  that  the  fifth 
grade  pupils,  who  have  learned  of  the  progress  of  our  country, 
have  a  need  to  know  more  about  what  happened  in  olden  times 
in  its  effect  upon  the  making  of  our  nation.  No  doubt  but  that 
Grecian  influence  has  helped  somewhat  to  make  America  what 
she  is.  Likewise  Roman,  Teutonic  and  English  influences  have 
affected  her  materially.  From  this  abundance  of  material  the 
teacher's  \\'ork  is  to  select  a  few  of  the  great  men  and  women  of 
former  times,  also  the  most  valuable  phases  of  the  history  of 
those  countries  which  have  a  direct  bearing  upon  the  growth  of 
our  country.  For  example,  it  would  be  better  to  study  four  or 
five  important  characters,  such  as  Caesar,  Napoleon,  Socrates, 
Pericles,  Peter  the  Great,  Alfred  the  Great,  Cromwell,  Victoria, 
Elizabeth,  with  some  degree  of  thoroughness  than  to  attempt  to 
cover  the  entire  field  of  European  history.  Four  or  five  of  the 
great  movements  for  sixth  grade  study  are  sufficient  for  these 
children  when  one  considers  the  crowded  curriculum  of  this 
grade.  In  doing  this  the  teacher  must  consider  the  interests  and 
inclinations  of  her  pupils.  They  are  not  interested  in  abstractions 
and  philosophical  movements.     When  teacher  and  pupils  are 


143 

studying  movements  in  history  these  movements  must  be  easy  of 
understanding,  they  must  allow  of  approach  and  interpretation 
through  actions  of  men.  When  the  lives  of  men  are  interpreted 
in  connection  with  the  conditions  with  which  they  worked  there 
is  a  real  study  of  history.  Therefore  the  teacher  must  be  guided 
by  the  interesting  elements  in  history. 

If  the  purpose  of  the  seventh  year's  work  is  to  attempt  a  de- 
tailed study  of  American  history,  the  sixth  grade  teacher  must 
give  her  pupils  a  basis  for  this  detailed  work.  Therefore,  in 
selecting  important  and  interesting  men  or  movements  for  study, 
opportunities  must  be  offered  pupils  to  begin  to  organize  the 
work,  even  in  the  sixth  grade.  The  teacher's  reviews  must  give 
especial  emphasis  to  the  organization  of  the  material  around  the 
big  contributions  which  one  country  has  added  to  the  life  of 
another. 

In  our  newest  and  best  history  texts,  written  for  sixth  grade 
pupils,  the  sul)ject  matter  presents  our  relation  to  the  mother 
country  in  a  way  that  offers  very  valuable  material  for  invigorat- 
ing imaginative  work.  The  teacher  must  recognize  that  much 
of  the  material  in  the  best  textbook  is  to  be  read  by  the  pupils  for 
real  enjoyment  and  not  for  purpose  of  class  study  or  discussion. 
Class  discussion  should  be  upon  the  important  phases  only.  As 
in  the  fifth  grade,  the  pupil  should  not  be  held  responsible,  either 
through  oral  or  written  tests,  for  a  mastery  of  historical  facts 
or  information. 

It  is  necessary  that  many  of  the  important  historical  facts  be 
made  actual  wide-awake  situations  to  the  present  day  boy  and 
girl.  These  can  be  made  real  through  dramatization,  pageants 
and  story  telling.  This  insures  interest,  a  definite  question  to 
answer,  a  connection  between  the  civilization  of  that  time  and  of 
this,  and  a  chance  to  make  history  go  over  into  real  habits — the 
end  sought  in  teaching  history. 

PROBLEMS 

The  following  problems  indicate  how  the  teacher  is  to  select 
the  things  of  most  worth  in  sixth  grade  history. 

The  Athenian  boy  in  the  time  of  Pericles  was  trained  to  serve 
his  state,  even  as  a  boy.  What  schooling  did  he  receive?  What 
games  did  he  play?  When  did  he  begin  to  take  a  part  in  the  life 
of  his  city?  Why  was  he  taught  to  honor  the  heroes  of  Greece? 
What  heroes  do  you  think  he  would  study  in  Greek  history? 


144 

(Short  stories  of  the  Trojan  War  should  be  utilized  here  as  ma- 
terial for  pupil  reference.)  What  oath  did  the  boy  take?  In 
what  way  did  this  oath  prepare  him  for  his  future  work  ?  Why 
had  Athens  a  right  to  expect  so  much  of  its  young  citizens  ? 

The  Greeks  strove  to  develop  strong,  beautiful  bodies.  What 
did  they  do  in  order  to  have  such  bodies?  How  may  we  profit 
by  what  they  have  taught  us? 

The  Greeks  believed  in  training  for  courage,  truthfulness  and 
bravery.  How  did  their  training  develop  these  virtues?  How 
may  we  profit  by  their  example  ? 

In  the  time  of  Julius  Caesar  the  Roman  soldier  was  a  very 
important  citizen  of  Rome.  How  was  this  soldier  trained? 
When  did  his  training  begin  ?  Why  did  the  Roman  boys  admire 
the  courage  of  the  Roman  soldier?  Julius  Caesar  was  one  of 
Rome's  great  soldiers.  How  did  he  spread  the  Roman  law  and 
customs  ? 

Charlemagne  was  a  great  leader  in  civilizing  and  controlling 
the  barbaric  nations.    Tell  how  he  helped  his  people. 

King  Alfred  was  the  man  who  united  England  and  gave  her 
permanent  laws.  How  did  he  unite  England?  What  laws  did 
he  make?    Why  did  his  subjects  love  him? 

William,  the  Normsm,  and  Harold,  the  Saxon,  show  the 
beginnings  and  growth  of  feudalism.  What  were  the  interesting 
happenings  in  the  lives  of  these  men?  How  could  sixth  grade 
pupils  dramatize  the  battle  of  Hastings? 

King  John  was  forced  by  his  subjects  to  sign  the  Magna 
Carta.  How  did  this  charter  of  privileges  help  the  people  of 
England?  Tell  the  story  of  King  John  to  determine  whether  or 
not  he  was  a  great  leader. 

In  the  middle  ages,  the  knights  were  trained  to  be  courteous, 
kind  and  brave.  How  could  one  become  a  knight  ?  What  deeds 
of  kindness  did  the  knight  perform  throughout  his  life? 

In  former  times  there  were  people  who  made  great  religious 
pilgrimages.  What  were  their  purposes  in  making  these  pil- 
grimages? How  did  those  pilgrimages  afifect  the  occupations  of 
the  people  of  that  day? 

It  would  be  well  in  this  connection  to  have  certain  children 
tell  the  story  of  Peter,  the  Hermit;  of  Richard,  the  Lion  Hearted. 

The  foregoing  problems  or  movements  in  history  can  be 
handled  by  sixth  grade  boys  and  girls.     The  problems  given 


145 

suggest  the  important  things  to  be  stressed  with  reference  to  the 
movements  named.  For  example,  in  studying  the  life  of  the 
Greeks,  it  is  important  that  the  children  of  this  grade  learn  that 
the  Greeks  loved  beauty,  that  they  attempted  to  carry  out  their 
love  by  having  strong  and  beautiful  physical  bodies.  They  also 
need  to  know  that  the  Greeks  trained  themselves  in  truthfulness, 
bravery  and  courage.  When  the  children  have  talked  about 
these  things  which  the  Greeks  did,  when  they  have  learned  about 
the  Greek  games  and  how  important  they  were  in  the  life  of 
the  Greek  people,  they  understand — in  keeping  with  the  experi- 
ences of  sixth  grade  boys  and  girls — the  contribution  that  Greek 
life  gave  to  us.  The  helpful  teacher  utilizes  the  information 
which  these  children  obtain  in  connecting  the  games  of  the 
Greeks  with  our  present  day  games,  and  in  showing  how  the 
Greeks'  example  of  courage,  truthfulness  and  bravery  is  help- 
ful to  us. 

In  presenting  the  idea  "Feudalism"  to  these  children,  the 
teacher  must  utilize  pupil  abihty  and  pupil  interest  to  clinch  a 
few  of  the  important  things  which  feudalism  gave  to  civilization. 
Therefore  she  gives  stress  to  what  the  knight  did  through  his 
courage,  his  kindness  and  his  bravery.  The  child  is  not  sup- 
posed to  get  such  a  glimpse  of  civilization  as  is  possible  to  an 
adult,  but  he  can  appreciate  this  stage  of  civilization  in  terms 
of  the  lives  of  the  men  and  the  chivalry  practiced. 

If  the  problems  discussed  deal  with  the  religion  of  the  middle 
ages  they  may  be  approached  through  the  religious  pilgrimages 
made  at  that  time.  Therefore  the  teacher  should  give  oppor- 
tunities for  these  children  to  appreciate  some  of  the  conditions 
and  circumstances  under  which  the  pilgrimages  were  made. 
With  this  approach  the  Crusades  are  not  isolated  facts  in  history 
but  have  a  setting  which  has  meaning  for  children  of  this  year. 
The  influence  of  monasteries  and  of  the  work  of  the  educated 
monk  is  a  part  of  the  big  movement  in  this  period  of  histor}^. 
Such  problems  are  directly  connected  with  the  whole  religious 
movement  of  the  middle  ages. 

This  discussion  indicates  what  is  meant  by  movements  in  his- 
tory, or  problems,  taught  from  the  viewpoint  of  the  sixtli  grade 
pupil's  understanding.  Consequently  much  of  the  material  m  a 
given  textbook  must  be  eliminated ;  much  of  it  must  be  given  to 
the  pupil  as  material  for  pleasurable  reading.     Throughout  the 

lO   GEOG 


146 

entire  year  only  those  important  parts  of  history  which  deal  with 
the  lives  of  a  few  of  the  great  leaders,  or  the  important  move- 
ments in  history,  can  be  utilized,  and  those  that  are  utilized  should 
be  kept  in  reach  of  the  understanding  and  inclinations  of  the  chil- 
dren of  the  sixth  grade. 

CIVICS 

Time  allotment,  one  recitation  a  week. 

Sixth  grade  children  can  profitably  spend  the  time  given  to 
civics  upon  two  large  topics,  health  and  thrift.  When  they  are 
dealing  with  the  topic  of  health  the  teacher  should  make  con- 
stant reference  to  the  monograph  upon  Physical  Training, 
and  should  in  turn  vitalize  the  work  in  hygiene  by  a  careful  dis- 
cussion of  the  problems  outlined  in  the  work  on  health  from  the 
civic  point  of  view. 

In  taking  up  the  second  large  problem,  thrift,  the  teacher  has 
excellent  opportunity  to  bring  the  children  face  to  face  with  the 
necessity  for  thrift  in  all  lines  of  action.  She  is  urged  to  utilize 
every  means  available  to  assist  the  pupils  to  become  thrifty  in 
their  habits.  For  example,  a  thrifty  farmer  of  a  given  com- 
munity could  be  called  in  to  tell  the  boys  and  girls  how  he  be- 
came successful.  A  thrifty  school  teacher  could  tell  to  these 
children  what  she  does  to  increase  her  earning  power ;  a  thrifty 
business  man  or  professional  man  could  be  asked  to  contribute 
little  talks  upon  how  he  became  self-sustaining.  If  the  teacher 
opens  a  savings  account  in  the  schoolroom,  or  has  her  children 
open  savings  accounts  in  the  bank,  she  is  putting  into  practice 
civics  training  in  the  problem  of  thrift.  Her  teaching  will  be 
successful  if  the  pupils  sense  the  necessity  for  thrift  upon  their 
part  in  the  home  and  in  the  school. 

The  following  suggestive  problems  should  indicate  to  the 
teacher  the  limits  of  her  work,  and  it  should  also  suggest  defi- 
nitely the  plan  of  procedure. 

HEALTH 

Why  needed  in  school ;   throughout  life. 
Why  community  is  interested  in  health  of  its  citizens. 
Why   school   authorities   are   interested   in   health   of   school 
children. 

Why  state  and  nation  are  interested  in  health  of  all. 


147 

How  school  children  may  promote  health  measures — at  their 
home,  in  school,  on  the  playground,  on  the  street 

How  medical  inspector  and  local  health  authorities  may  pro- 
mote health  measures. 

How  local,  county  and  state  health  officers  may  bring  about 
conditions  that  make  for  better  health. 

How  farmers  and  business  men  aid  in  the  better  health  move- 
ment. How  clean  back  yards  and  barnyards  make  for  better 
health. 

How  all  health  agencies,  such  as  clean  streets,  closed  sewers, 
clean  public  buildings,  good  water  supply,  pure  food,  make  for 
better  health. 

How  recreation  and  recreational  centers  assist. 

THRIFT 

Why  needed  in  school — use  of  time,  use  of  energ)%  use  of 
equipment  and  supplies  furnished  at  public  expense. 

Why  needed  in  the  home — use  of  money  in  buying  nutritious 
food  and  appropriate  clothing;  in  procuring  recreation  and 
health ;   in  securing  education ;   in  preparing  for  a  vocation. 

Why  needed  in  business. 

Why  needed  in  public  life. 

Home  projects  in  thrift  for  sixth  grade  children,  e.  g.,  cultiva- 
tion of  vegetable  garden,  cultivation  of  flower  garden,  care  of 
lawn,  care  of  furnace,  care  of  basement  floors,  care  of  kitchen, 
making  one's  own  clothes,  selling  papers,  raising  chickens. 

School  projects  in  thrift  for  sixth  grade  children,  e.  g.,  care 
of  special  beds  in  school  garden,  care  of  school  yard,  care  of 
schoolroom,  care  of  school  flag,  mending  school  books,  mending 
chairs  for  money,  making  manual  training  and  sewing  articles 
for  money,  saving  for  deposit  in  a  savings  bank  pennies  that  could 
be  spent  for  candies  and  ice  cream. 

SUPPLEMENTARY  AND  REFERENCE  BOOKS  FOR  PUPILS 
AND  TEACHER 

GEADE  VI 

Allsop,   H.     An  Introduction  to  English  Industrial  History.     Macmillan, 

N.  Y. 
Atherton,   Edward,   Ed.     Adventures  of  Marco  Polo.     Appleton,  N.  T. 
Beazley,  C.  R.     Prince  Henry  the  Navigator.     Putnam,  N.  Y. 
Blumner,    Hugo.      (Translated   by   Alice   Zimmern).     Home  Life  of  the 

Greeks.     Cassel,  N.  Y. 


148 

Brooks,  Noah.     Story  of  Marco  Polo.     Century,  N.  T. 

Buchan,  John.     Sir  Walter  Raleigh.     Holt,  N.  Y. 

Butterworth,    Hezekiah.      Story    of    Magellan.      Appleton;      Cliatterton; 

N.  Y. 
Fiske,  John.    War  of  Independence.     Houghton,  Boston 
Grierson,   E.     Florence   (in  the  Series  called  "Peeps  at  Great  Cities") 

Macmillan,  N.  Y. 
Hall,  Jennie.     Men  of  Old  Greece.    Little,  N.  Y. 
Hall,  Jennie.     Viking  Tales.     Rand  McNally,  Chicago 
Johnson,  W.  H.    French  Pathfinders  in  North  America.    Little,  N.  Y. 
Johnson,  W.  H.    Pioneer  Spaniards  in  North  America.    Little,  N.  Y. 
Lansing,  M.  F.     Barbarian  and  Noble.     Ginn,  N.  Y. 
Marshall,  H.  E.     Island  Story.     Stokes,  N.  Y. 

Plutarch's  Lives.     Edited  by  Clough.     Everyman,  3  vol.     Button,  N.  Y. 
Synge,  M.  B.     A  Book  of  Discovery.     Putnam,  N.  Y. 
Tappan,  E.  M.    In  the  Days  of  Elizabeth.    Lothrop,  N.  Y. 
Wheeler,  B.  i.     Alexander  the  Great  (Heroes  of  the  Nations).     Putnam, 

N.  Y. 

GRADE  VII 
HIiTORY 

SPECIFIC  AIKS 

Limits :  discovery  of  America  to  winning  of  complete  inde- 
pendence. 

First  half:  discovery  and  colonization,  colonial  life,  struggle 
between  France  and  England  for  control  of  America. 

Second  half:  separation  from  mother  country,  winning  of 
independence,  formation  of  Union,  winning  of  complete  inde- 
pendence. 

Purposes : 

1.  To  make  the  problem  studied  the  pupil's  problem 

2.  To  attach  to  the  work  all  that  is  possible  of  wholesome 
emotional  experience 

3.  To  make  rough  judgments  during  the  process  of  collecting 
material,  but  to  withhold  final  judgment  until  all  available  ma- 
terial is  organized 

4.  To  sense  causal  relations  in  all  topics  of  history  study 

5.  To  evaluate  facts,  events,  movements,  lives  of  men  and 
women,  and  contributions  to  government 

^  6.  To  make  simple,  practical  applications  of  facts  and  prin- 
ciples learned  to  problems  of  today 

7.  To  utilize  history  as  a  subject  by  which  to  help  socialize  all 
work  of  the  school 


149 

The  teacher  of  history  in  grade  VII  may  assume  that  her 
pupils  are  ready  to  undertake  a  somewhat  detailed  study  of 
American  history.  The  average  age  of  such  children;  their  in- 
clinations, interests  and  desires;  their  habit  of  work — all  these 
are  proofs  of  their  ability  to  take  up  a  definite  question  and  follow 
it  through  a  series  of  changes,  until  it  is  solved.  These  pupils 
are  ready  to  attack  a  problem  which  has  much  content  and  collect 
material  toward  its  solution,  selecting,  weighing  and  rejecting 
evidence,  until  the  causal  relations  are  brought  out  to  their 
satisfaction.  This  habit  of  withholding  final  judgment,  of 
keeping  an  open  mind,  is  one  of  the  most  important  habits  to 
cultivate  at  this  stage  of  their  education.  The  virtue  of  with- 
holding judgment  shoidd  carry  over  into  their  lives  and  should 
become  an  active  control  in  adult  life.  Efficient  history  teaching 
during  the  seventh  grade  offers  great  opportunities  for  such 
development. 

In  the  earlier  grades  the  pupil  began  to  see  the  relation  of 
heroes,  heroines  and  leaders  to  the  countries  which  they  served. 
In  this  grade  he  is  to  experience  this  relation  by  putting  himself 
as  nearly  as  possible  in  the  place  of  the  hero  or  leader  whom  he 
admires.  He  is  to  make  the  problem  studied  his  problem,  and 
get  value  accordingly.  Our  great  difficulty  has  been  that  we 
have  not  helped  the  child  to  make  a  direct  connection  between 
the  past  history  facts  which  he  studies  and  his  present  life. 
When  he  thinks  and  feels  as  the  men  whose  lives  he  studies 
thought  and  felt,  he  is  understanding  history.  The  boy  who 
replied,  when  asked  what  help  he  had  received  from  a  study  of 
history,  "I  have  not  yet  begun  to  fight,"  had  been  putting  him- 
self into  the  situation  studied,  had  been  making  the  problems  of 
history  his  problems.    SJuch  teaching  is  valuable  history  teaching. 

In  order  that  the  teacher  may  present  work  economically  she 
should  consider  the  relative  values  in  certain  so-called  "methods" 
of  teaching  history,  such  as  "words  of  the  text  method,"  "ques- 
tion and  answer  method,"  "topical  outline  method,"  "problem 
method." 

WOEDS  OF  THE  TEXT  METHOD 

The  first  named,  words  of  the  text  method,  should  not  be 
called  a  method,  for  it  is  valueless  in  teaching  children  real 
history  or  in  causing  them  to  think  while  they  are  studymg 


150 

liistory.  It  is  a  method  by  which  a  pupil  is  supposed  to  learn 
history  by  repeating,  almost  verbatim,  the  words  of  a  given  text- 
book. Unfortunately  some  such  teaching  still  goes  on,  at  least 
in  spirit.  For  example,  history  work  in  which  the  teacher  allows 
the  children  to  repeat  the  words  of  the  text  practically,  without 
any  thought  as  to  the  meaning  implied,  is  a  worthless  pro- 
cedure. Teaching  which  allows  pupils  to  give  a  thought  in  a 
paragraph  or  a  group  of  paragraphs  without  stimulating  any 
opinion  or  discussion  from  pupils  is  poor  teaching.  The  spirit 
of  this  monograph  condemns  utterly  such  teaching  whether  it 
be  in  seventh  or  fifth  grade  history. 

aiTESTION  Aia>  AN6WEK  KETHOD 

The  question  and  answer  method  is  worthy  of  serious  con- 
sideration. One  phase  of  this  method  is  useless,  namely,  that 
in  which  question  one  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  calls  up  questions 
two,  three,  four,  etc.  It  is  readily  seen  that  there  is  no  sequence 
of  ideas,  for  questions  two  and  three  are  mere  accidents;  in  fact, 
question  one  is  likely  an  accident.  It  could  suggest  twenty 
different  ones  to  follow.  The  one  selected  would  depend  upon 
the  worth  of  the  teacher.  The  poorer  the  teacher  the  fewer 
possible  reactions  one  would  expect;  the  fewer  reactions  the 
greater  the  chance  that  the  first  question  thought  of  would  be 
selected.  It  is  seen  at  a  glance  that  this  phase  of  the  question 
and  answer  method  does  not  obligate  the  teacher  to  know  her 
subject  matter,  neither  does  it  obligate  the  children  to  do  sequen- 
tial thinking. 

There  is  a  phase  of  the  question  and  answer  method,  how- 
ever, that  brings  out  valuable  history  work.  For  example,  when 
question  one  is  given  in  the  light  of  the  important  points  to  be 
stressed  it  so  stimulates  the  pupil  that  in  answering  he  sees  the 
relation  of  the  big  facts  or  ideas  in  a  given  lesson.  His  purpose- 
ful thinking  causes  him  to  ask  questions  of  the  class  and  of  the 
teacher  in  order  to  satisfy  his  desire  for  help.  Such  a  use  of  the 
question  and  answer  method  presupposes  that  the  teacher  has 
a  definite  purpose  in  mind,  that  the  assignment  has  point,  that 
the  teacher  has  her  big  facts,  her  pivotal  questions,  in  mind  and 
that  she  will  not  allow  irrelevant  matter  to  defeat  the  purpose 
of  the  recitation. 


151 

Such  work  necessitates  that  the  assignment  be  made  in  such 
a  way  that  it  alone  will  suggest  logical  thinking.  This  assign- 
ment—as a  suggestive  outline,  as  a  series  of  commands,  as  a 
series  of  points  to  be  worked  out,  or  as  a  group  of  related 
problems  to  be  solved — makes  the  work  of  the  pupils  full  of 
interest.  At  the  same  time  it  makes  it  possible  for  the  teacher 
to  use  the  given  assignment  as  a  means  by  which  she  will  get 
definite  pointed  questions  for  the  recitation  proper.  These 
factors  are  the  minimum  essentials  in  conducting  a  valuable 
recitation  in  history,  geography  or  reading.  When  used  rightly 
the  question  and  answer  method  has  much  to  commend  it. 

TOPICAL  OTTTLINE  METHOD 

The  topical  outline  as  a  method  may  be  used  in  such  a  way 
that  it  reinforces  the  work  just  discussed  under  the  good  ele- 
ments in  the  question  and  answer  method.  For  example,  if  used 
occasionally  it  breaks  the  monotony  of  the  question  and  answer 
method.  It  may  also  be  used  to  clinch  the  relations  brought  out 
by  the  questions  of  the  teacher.  On  the  other  hand,  it  may 
become  a  mere  empty  form  which  allows  children  to  think  that 
by  sensing  the  heavy  type  of  the  paragraph  they  have  mastered 
the  thought  therein.  It  may  be  used  by  the  teacher  as  a  short 
way  by  which  she  may  grasp  the  ideas  to  be  taught,  a  way  by 
which  she  "bluffs"  an  assignment.  It  may  be  used  by  the  pupils 
as  a  means  to  cover  up  their  ignorance  of  the  subject  under  dis- 
cussion. When  it  is  used  as  shown  in  the  first  part  of  this  dis- 
cussion it  is  a  very  valuable  way  by  which  to  get  pupils  to  sense 
the  relation  of  cause  and  effect  and  to  group  ideas  in  sequence, 
to  stress  thought  work  as  more  important  than  fact  work. 

I 

PROBLEM  METHOD 

The  problem  method,  so  called,  suggests  immediately  that  there 
is  a  definite  need  on  the  part  of  the  learner,  a  definite  result  wanted 
on  the  part  of  the  teacher.  It  also  suggests  more  than  any  other 
method  that  the  teacher  knows  much  of  the  relations  of  a  given 
problem,  both  with  respect  to  the  facts  within  the  given  subject 
matter  and  the  related  facts  without  the  subject  matter.  Much  of 
the  work  suggested  under  this  method  can  be  accomplished  through 
use  of  the  question  and  answer  method  handled  rightly.  Much 
of  it  is  related  closely  to  the  sensible  use  of  the  topical  method. 


152 

If  one  adds  to  these  points  the  provisions  for  continued  de- 
velopment of  the  large  idea  into  larger  and  larger  units;  the 
provision  for  testing  values ;  the  provision  for  more  individual 
and  intra-class  discussion ;  the  provision  for  the  use  of  the  ideas 
gained  with  respect  to  dramatization,  local  history  and  civic 
questions;  the  relation  of  history  facts  to  those  of  geography 
and  other  subjects;  he  has  truly  evaluated  the  problem  method 
of  teaching  history. 

The  foregoing  discussion  indicates  the  .importance  of  the 
problem  method  if  it  is  used  in  such  a  way  that  it  incorporates 
the  good  points  in  the  other  methods  mentioned.  For  example, 
in  approaching  a  subject  such  as  colonization  or  industrial  de- 
velopment of  the  West,  the  pupils  and  teacher  should  have  free 
exchange  of  ideas  as  to  why  it  is  worth  while  to  study  such 
topics,  what  facts  are  to  be  considered,  w^hat  books  are  best  to 
read,  what  sub-topics  are  to  be  omitted,  what  important  ques- 
tions are  to  be  stressed,  what  notes  are  to  be  taken,  what  wants 
of  the  class  are  to  be  satisfied,  how  the  work  is  to  be  handled — 
by  oral  or  written  reports  or  by  questions  and  answers.  This 
vital  way  of  teaching  history  makes  the  problem  stand  out, 
makes  the  plan  of  attack  clear,  and  directs  the  interests  and 
efforts  of  the  children  toward  a  live  issue. 

In  carrying  out  the  work  constant  provision  must  be  made 
for  the  testing  of  values  found,  the  weighing  of  facts  in  their 
relation  to  others  studied.  This  provides  for  the  organization 
and  the  use  of  ideas  gained.  The  pupils  w^ho  have  a  desire  to 
gain  definite  information,  and  who,  at  the  same  time,  have  their 
plans  of  attack  worked  out  and  a  knowledge  of  how  to  organize 
the  ideas  as  they  are  worked  out  are  obtaining  real  training  in 
history. 

The  discussions  given  on  certain  methods,  so  called,  indicate 
quite  clearly  that  there  is  much  to  be  done  before  good  history 
teaching  becomes  common  practice.  Many  aspects  of  the  work, 
apparently  unimportant,  must  be  understood  by  every  teacher 
before  she  begins  to  teach  efficiently.  For  example,  the  ma- 
jority of  the  pupils  of  the  seventh  grade  have  not  learned  how 
to  use  a  textbook  to  the  best  advantage.  It  would  be  important, 
therefore,  for  the  teacher,  when  at  work  upon  a  definite  prob- 
lem, to  examine  the  textbook  with  the  pupils  in  order  to  deter- 
mine how  it  would  furnish  material  to  answer  the  question  at 


I 
I 


153 

hand.  In  this  way  the  pupils  could  be  taught  the  use  of  indices 
and  tables  of  contents,  the  purpose  of  headings  and  foot-notes. 
They  could  see  a  real  meaning  in  maps,  pictures,  charts,  related 
material  in  magazines,  periodicals  and  newspapers.  Such  pre- 
sentation obligates  the  teacher  to  give  her  pupils  opportunities 
to  dramatize  certain  phases  of  history  work.  All  seventh  grade 
pupils  should  be  able  to  pick  out  important  parts  of  history 
material  that  could  be  dramatized.  Furthermore,  after  a  few 
months'  practice  they  should  be  able  to  direct  this  dramatization 
with  but  little  assistance  from  the  teacher.  In  this  connection  it 
is  worth  while  to  have  these  pupils  give  imaginative  settings  for 
dramatization  work.  Their  imaginative  settings  should  be  an 
outgrowth  of  their  classroom  work  and  outside  reading,  pro- 
vided they  be  given  freedom  in  their  individual  imaginative 
abilities. 

DRAMATIZATION   PROJECTS 

It  would  be  very  easy,  for  example,  for  seventh  grade  chil- 
dren to  give  an  imaginative  dramatization  concerning  the  Pil- 
grims which  would  present  scenes  showing  effect  upon  ( i )  those 
who  loved  the  Indians,  (2)  those  who  loved  their  homeland, 
(3)  those  who  loved  their  new  land.  Likewise  it  would  be  easy 
to  show  through  imaginative  dramatization  the  conquest  of  the 
northwest  territory.  The  scenes  could  show :  ( i )  attack  at 
Vincennes,  (2)  life  of  the  settlers  along  the  Wabash  and  Ohio 
rivers,  (3)  influence,  of  missionaries  upon  the  Indians,  (4) 
character  of  Clark.  It  would  be  helpful  to  see  the  life  in  the 
South  through  imaginative  dramatization:  (i)  scene  showing 
ideals  of  the  South-loving  people,  (2)  allegiance  of  the  negro 
to  the  master,  (3)  friendhness  of  the  planter,  (4)  happy  life  on 
a  plantation  controlled  by  a  kind-hearted  master. 

DEBATES 

Another  way  to  teach  history  successfully  is  through  class  dis- 
cussion and  debates.  Seventh  and  eighth  grade  pupils  should 
be  able  to  select  vital  questions  from  history  which  would  be 
valuable  for  debates.  They  should  be  trained  in  stating  thes-e 
questions  in  good  form,  in  making  simple  briefs  upon  such 
questions,  in  collecting  collateral  material,  and  in  makmg  refer- 
ence lists  for  given  topics.  If  the  history  work  is  conducted  as 
suggested  the  pupils  will  find  many  opportunities  to  give  drama- 


154 

tization  with  profit;  to  debate  before  the  class,  before  the  school, 
and  before  visitors,  with  much  credit  to  themselves.  Good 
history  teaching  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  offers  the  best 
opportunities  possible  for  Vv-ide-awake  debate  work  for  boys  and 
girls. 

EEPORTS  TTPOH  OtTTSIDE  HEADING 

Much  of  the  outside  reading  and  biography  work  should  be 
directly  connected  with  the  regular  classroom  work  and  used  in 
dramatization,  in  debate  work,  and  in  special  reports.  All  pupils 
of  these  grades  should  have  occasional  opportunities  to  present 
the  biography  of  an  individual  or  the  interesting  phases  of  an 
important  subject  to  the  entire  class  or  to  the  room.  At  such 
times  they  should  be  held  responsible  for  defi.nite  outside  reading 
and  for  clear  presentation  of  the  case.  Members  of  the  class 
should  bring  about  discussions  in  which  all  pupils  may  have 
practice  in  defending  the  position  which  they  have  taken. 

THE   STTTDY    OF   PICTURES 

An  intelligent  appreciative  study  of  important  historical  pic- 
tures is  essential  in  these  grades.  In  the  best  texts  there  are 
pictures  which  reveal  history  equally  well  with  the  printed  page. 
Kindred  pictures,  which  may  be  obtained  from  libraries  or  from 
magazines,  are  equally  important.  When  these  pictures  are  taken 
as  subjects  for  study  and  are  interpreted  in  the  light  of  the  pur- 
pose for  which  they  are  used  the  teacher  and  pupils  have  excellent 
history  material.  These  pictures  should  be  studied  as  carefully 
as  any  lesson  in  the  course.  Studying  a  picture  means  interpret- 
ing what  the  picture  has  to  say,  picking  out  the  controlling  ele- 
ments in  it,  appreciating  the  ideas  suggested,  and  connecting  the 
picture  with  the  historical  events  or  movements  with  which  it  is 
rightly  associated. 

IMPOETAKT   DATES 

If  history  is  taught  according  to  the  principles  laid  down  in 
this  monograph  the  important  dates  in  American  history  will  be 
emphasized.  Such  a  list  will  not  be  too  long  to  be  memorized  by 
each  pupil.  Neither  will  it  be  a  tiresome  task  if  pupils  memorize 
the  dates  by  making  worth-while  connections  during  study  and 
recitation  periods. 


155 

LIMITS  OF  WO&K 

The  unit  of  work  outlined  for  the  seventh  grade  covers  Ameri- 
can history  from  the  beginning  of  American  history  to  the  time 
when  the  country  began  its  period  of  industrial  development.  In 
point  of  time  the  period  covers  from  1492  to  approximately  181 7. 
This  unit  of  work  ought  to  give  seventh  grade  pupils  a  unified 
glimpse  of  our  country  up  to  the  time  when  it  had  permanently 
established  itself  among  the  nations  of  the  world.  The  majority 
of  courses,  it  is  true,  recommend  as  the  upper  limit  of  seventh 
grade  work  the  formation  of  the  new  government.  The  division 
offered  in  this  monograph  seems  better  because  of  the  fact  that 
the  problems  raised  during  the  formation  of  the  new  government 
are  not  really  answered  until  after  the  war  of  18 12.  It  seems 
reasonable  that  the  conditions  which  tested  out  whether  or  not 
this  government  could  maintain  itself  should  be  studied  in  the 
same  term's  work  with  the  formation  of  the  government.  The 
second  reason  for  increasing  the  limits  of  seventh  grade  history 
is  that  the  eighth  grade  must  have  more  time  to  give  to  the  study 
of  important  movements  in  current  history,  and  of  present  day 
civic  questions. 

MOVEMENTS   OR  LARGE  QTTESTIOKS  ILLTTSTEATED 

The  work  in  each  half  year  should  center  around  the  move- 
ments of  large  historical  significance.  The  lesser  movement,  the 
sub-related  principle,  the  small  detail,  should  each  find  its  place 
in  its  relation  to  the  large  movement.  These  movements  should 
be  presented  as  questions  that  need  to  be  answered  or  as  problems 
worthy  of  being  studied.  The  two  essential  things  to  be  con- 
sidered are  :  ( i )  Nature  and  need  of  the  child  ;  his  ability  to 
learn  historical  facts  and  relate  them  to  his  immediate  life;  (2) 
Placement  of  facts  and  principles  in  true  historical  significance. 

STTGGESTIONS  ON  PRESENTATION 

Types  of  Asslgnmsnt 

To  he  Worked  out  with  Pupils 

Problem.  Why  was  the  settlement  of  Pennsylvania,  made  by 
William  Penn,  so  successful? 


156 

Assignment 

1.  Purpose  of  Penn,  as  shown  in 

OL  The  way  he  treated  King  Charles 

b.  What  he  had  done  in  the  West  Jersey  Colony 

c.  His  selection  of  the  territory 

d.  His  attitude  toward  his  people 

2.  Problems  arising  because  of 

a.  The  nature  of  the  people  who  settled  here 

b.  The  nature  of  the  Indians 

c.  The  location  and  condition  of  the  land 

3.  Solution  of  the  problems  which  arose,  as  shown  in 

a.  Treatment  of  Indians 

b.  Kind  of  government  produced 

c.  Growth  of  colony 

d.  Relation  of  this  colony  to  others 

Problem.  How  has  the  invention  of  McCormick  influenced 
our  country? 

Assignment 

1.  When  McCormick  lived 

2.  His  trade  and  his  preparation  for  it 

3.  Problems  confronting  him 

4.  His  invention  of  the  harvester 

o.  The  difficulties  encountered 
b.  The  results  of  success  upon 

(1)  McCormick 

(2)  The  farmers  of  his  day 

(3)  Commerce  and  industry 

(4)  Other  inventions 

(5)  Other  inventors 

(6)  The  people  of  today 

If  history  problems  are  presented  in  accordance  with  the  prin- 
ciples shown  in  the  foregoing  assignments  the  pupils  will  have  as 
definite  tasks  to  perform  as  those  presented  in  an  arithmetic 
lesson  or  a  manual  training  exercise.  They  will  have  definite 
questions  to  answer  which  will  call  for  a  sensing  of  the  conditions 
under  which  the  problems  arose,  and  an  understanding  of  the 
situation  and  results  which  followed. 

There  is  another  value  attached  to  the  work  as  suggested  in 
the  outline.  When  such  assignments  are  followed  the  teacher 
and  pupils  must  use  the  index  and  the  table  of  contents  in  the 
textbook  rather  than  a  particular  page  of  the  textbook.  They 
must  find  all  the  evidence  that  is  presented  within  the  whole 


■  157 

book.  For  example,  in  one  of  the  better  history  texts  about  one- 
half  page  is  given  to  a  rather  concise  discussion  of  the  invention 
of  the  McCormick  reaper  but  some  phase  of  the  subject  is  men- 
tioned on  ten  different  pages.  Anybody  could  "hear"  history 
in  the  old-fashioned  way,  which  allowed  a  topic  to  be  begun  and 
finished  by  reading  one  paragraph.  It  takes  a  well  prepared, 
wide-awake  individual  to  really  "teach"  history^  by  Ending  and 
utilising  all  available  material.  By  use  of  table  of  contents, 
index,  etc.,  any  modern  history  text  lends  itself  to  such  "Prob- 
lem" organization  as  is  indicated  by  these  outlines. 

COTTESE   OF   STUDY 

The  outlines  for  seventh  and  eighth  grade  work  are  in  keep- 
ing with  the  principles  set  forth.  The  function  of  the  outlines 
is  to  guide  the  teacher  in  her  efforts  to  present  history  in  such 
a  way  that  the  child  studies  it  from  the  basis  of  his  felt  need 
to  learn.  Furthermore,  these  outlines,  or  organizations  in 
problem  form,  suggest  the  way  to  stress  the  important  events 
and  movements  in  history.  They  also  suggest  how  much  of  the 
non-important  material  is  to  be  eliminated.  An  attempt  has 
been  made  to  vary  the  form  of  the  problem  in  order  to  en- 
courage teacher  and  pupil  to  make  out  problems  in  keeping 
with  class  possibilities.  Such  outlines  or  problems  are  not  to  be 
used  as  assignments,  nor  are  they  to  be  rigidly  followed.  Not 
all  the  problems  given  are  to  be  worked  out  in  detail.  If  the 
teacher  follows  in  spirit  the  work  as  outlined,  she  will  have  the 
freest  use^possible  of  her  individual  initiative. 

Problems  Organized 

How  America  came  to  be  discovered 

1.  Value  of  Mediterranean  to  trade;    use  of  overland  route   ^ 

2.  Cities  about  Mediterranean;    factors  in  growth  of  these  cities 

3.  Articles  of  trade 

4.  Map  regions  showing  routes  (sketch  map) 

5.  Steps  in  conditions  that  brought  about  trade  stoppage  with 
Asia 

6.  Possible  solution  of  difficulties 

a.  By  Spain,  Portugal 

b.  By  Columbus 

7.  Conditions  brought  about  by  the  temporary  solution 

8.  The  way  in  which  England  was  interested  in  expanding  her 
trade 


15^ 

a.  Her  part  in  the  situations  just  discussed 
^.  The  work  of  Cabot 

(1)  Significance  of  voyages 

(2)  Failure  to  profit  by  them 

c.  Conditions  which  gave  a  new  interest  to  tho  discOTeries^ 
II.    What  cause  led  to  the  settlement  of  the  new  world? 

1.  General 

a.  Growing  desire  for  luxuries 

b.  Love  of  adventure 

c.  Renaissance  and  Reformation 

2.  Specific 

a.  Inventions 

b.  Conquest  of  Turks 

c.  Rivalry  between  Spain  and  England 

d.  Religious  diflaculties  in  England 

e.  Religious  freedom  in  Holland 
/.  Overpopulation  in  Europe 

3.  EiXplorers  who  paved  the  way.     (Lists  of  explorers  from  the 

various  countries  should  be  avoided.  Only  such  explorers 
as  solved  a  definite  problem  for  Europe  need  be  taught. 
Among  the  Spanish  explorers,  Columbus  answered  the  ques- 
tion, "Can  the  ocean  be  crossed?"  Cabeza  de  Vaca,  the 
question,  "Can  the  new  continent  be  crossed?"  and  Magellan 
the  question  of  the  rotundity  of  the  earth.  Cortez  and 
Pizarro  need  to  be  distinguished  as  conquerors.  Champlain 
was  the  great  investigator  of  colonization  among  the 
French.  Aside  from  the  Cabots,  practically  all  English 
exploration  was  incidental  to  the  plunder  of  Spanish  ships. 
What  children  need  to  discover  is  that  the  three  great 
powers  of  Europe  succeeded  in  establishing  for  themselves 
empires  in  America.  Compare  difficulties  of  these  early 
explorers  with  those  of  recent  explorers  such  as  Peary.) 

III.  What  steps  were  necessary  for  establishing  a  claim  in  America 

and  what  nations  satisfied  these  conditions?* 

1.  Discovery 

2.  Exploration 

3.  Settlement 

4.  Conditions  met  by  France,  Spain  and  England 

IV.  Whsit  helps  and  hindrances  did  the  American  Indian  offer  to  the 

colonists? 


^  Questions  and  discussions  should  create  a  want  in  pupils  to  make 
their  meager  information  very  definite. 

Assignments  and  questions  should  center  attention  upon  commerce  of 
Western  Europe  in  its  relation  with  the  Indies. 

'  Pupils  should  be  encouraged  to  make  a  map  of  the  American  pos- 
sessions of  the  three  greatest  European  nations. 


159 

V.     Why  was  life  in  English  colonies  so  difficult? 

1.  Distance  from   England   and   difficulties  of  transportation 

2.  Unfortunate  choice   of  colonists  in   certain  colonies 

3.  Continuous  quarrels  between   governors  and   people 

a.  In  New  Jersey 

b.  Clayborne's  Rebellion 

c.  Bacon's  Rebellion 

d.  Roger  Williams  and  Anne  Hutchinson 

4.  Question  of  rights  to  land 

a.  Rights  of  Indians 

(1)  Different  ways  used  by  colonists  in  adjusting  claima 

(2)  King  Philip's  War 

(3)  Pequot  War 

b.  Conflicting  claims  of  colonies 

(1)  New  Jersey  vs  New  York 

(2)  Pennsylvania  vs  Maryland 

c.  Jealousy  of  other  nations — Dutch,  Swedes,  etc. 

5.  Unwise  laws 

1.  Navigation  laws 

2.  Grand  model 

3.  Suffrage   restricted  by   religion  or  property 

VI.     Why  did  the  English  •  colonies  endure  when  Spanish  and  French 
failed? 

1.  Methods  of  government  compared 

a.  Spanish 

b.  French 

c.  English 

Types^ 

(1)  Massachusetts — self  governing 

(2)  Pennsylvania — proprietary 

(3)  Virginia — royal   province 

2.  Social  conditions  compared 

a.  Spanish 

b.  French 

c.  English 

3.  Industries   developed   by   each   compared 

4.  English  wrest  land  from  French  in  French  and  Indian  War 
VII.     Characterize  home  life  in  the  colonies 

1.  Dwellings 

a.  First  or  temporarj'-  houses 

b.  Later  or  permanent  houses 

c.  Homes  on  Virginian  plantation 

2.  Heating  and  cooking 

3.  Food 

4.  Dress 

^It  is  intended  that  the  government  of  the  other  English  colonies  be 
briefly  compared  with  the  type  colonies. 


i6o 

5.  Transportation 

a.  On  land 

b.  On  water 

6.  Occupation 

7.  Labor  problems 

8.  Religion  and  religious  customs 

9.  Education 

10.  Unhealthful  conditions 
VIII.     How  Englishmen  in  America  became  Americans 

1.  How  these  people  were  changed  by: 

a.  Nature 

b.  Contact  with  Indians 

c.  How   England   and   the  colonists   differed   in  their  idea« 

about  the  relation  of  England  to  the  colonies 

2.  What  important  factors  led  to  desire  for  independence? 

a.  What  events  show  growing  unity  among   colonists? 

b.  What  events  show   growth  of  Independent  spirit? 

c.  Lack  of  sympathy  with  England  and  consequent  misunder- 

standing^ 
IX.    How  the  Revolutionary  War  was  fought 

1.  Advantages   of  colonists 

a.  Knew  the  country 

b.  Controlled  sources  of  supply 

c.  Knew  one  another 

d.  Had  received  training  in  fighting  in  the  open  coimtry 

e.  Could   endure   great   hardships,   due  to   pioneer  life 

2.  Disadvantages  of  colonists 

a.  Not  great  in  number 

b.  Had  few  facilities  for  manufacturing  implements  of  war 

and  ammunition 

c.  At  beginning  had  few  leaders 

d.  Had  little  wealth 

e.  Lacked  a  central  government  strong  enough  to  control 

3.  Advantages  of  England 

a.  Had  plenty  of  money  with  which  to  carry  on  war 

b.  Had  trained  leaders  in  war 

c.  Had    facilities   for   manufacture   of   war   equipment   and 

munitions 

d.  Shipping  equipment  for  transporting 

4.  Disadvantages  of  England 

a.  The  great  expense  of  transporting  troops  and  ammunition 

b.  Unacquainted  with  country 

c.  At  war  with  other  nations 

5.  The  first  plan  of  the  British 

a.  The  meaning  of  such  plan  to  the  colonists  if  successful 

b.  The  reasons  for  its  failure 


^  The  teacher  should  select  for  emphasis  only  the  important  difficulties 
between  the  colonies  and  the  mother  country.  The  reason  for  and  the 
results  of  these  difficulties  should  be  brought  out  in  class  discussion. 


i6i 

6.  The   part   played   by    New   Jersey   in   the   war— at   Trenton, 

Princeton,  Monmouth,  Morristown^ 

7.  Significance  to  our  country  of  such  places,  events,  and  land- 

marks as  North  Church,  Lexington,  Bunker  Hill  Monument, 
Faneuil   Hall,   Independence  Hall,   Yorktown,   Saratoga 

8.  Services  of  such  men  as  Washington,  Robert  Morris,  Benjamin 

Franklin,  Lafayette,  the  Adamses,  Jefferson,  Patrick  Henry, 
Governor  Paterson,  Boone,  Clark 

9.  The  final  victory  at  Yorktown^ 

a.  How  it  was  brought  about 
h.  What  it  signified 
10.  The  results 

a.  Upon  our  country  at  large 
h.  Upon  other  nations 
X.    Why  the  first  attempt  of  the  United  States  to  form  a  government 
was   a  failure — Articles  of  Coniederation 

1.  "V\Tiat   was   the   effect   of  the   states   existing  first  and   then 

granting    powers    to    the    nation    instead    of    the    nation's 
granting  powers  to  the  states? 
(Basis  of  all  study  of  American  government  and  history) 

2.  Select   stories   which   illustrate   the   trouble   into   which   the 

country  was  plunged  at  this  time 

a.  Farmers  vs  merchants 

b.  New  York  vs  New  Jersey 

c.  Paper  money 

d.  Western  lands 

XI.  How  our  present  form  of  government  was  obtained?  (The  children 
should  be  helped  to  realize  that  the  change  of  government 
which  took  place  during  the  years  1787-1789  was  as  truly  a 
revolution  as  was  the  change  brought  about  by  the  Revolution- 
ary War.  Thus  they  will  have  a  true  conception  of  the  term 
revolution) 

1.  Calling  of  the  Convention 

2.  Leading  men  of  the  Convention 


^  In  presenting  the  share  of  New  Jersey  in  the  Revolutionary  War,  the 
teacher  should  give  special  attention  to  the  fact  that  for  more  than  a 
year  the  chief  scenes  of  fighting  were  upon  New  Jersey  soil;  that  these 
conflicts  were  important  factors  in  the  final  defeat  of  the  British;  and 
that  New  Jersey  had  as  important  a  part  to  play  as  any  of  the  New 
England  States.  In  this  connection  the  teacher  should  utilize  any  local 
story  or  setting  that  would  help  to  make  this  period  of  history  vivid 
and  meaningful  to  the  children. 

'In  teaching  the  final  events  of  the  Revolutionary  War  the  teacher 
should  make  clear  the  facts  that  the  aid  of  France  was  a  great  factor 
in  the  winning  of  the  war  for  the  colonists;  that  England's  war  witn 
Spain,  Holland  and  other  nations,  kept  her  so  busy  near  home  that 
she  could  give  but  little  attention  to  the  colonists;  that,  aftej  all,  tne 
war  with  the  colonists  was  an  incident  in  the  many  projects  that  Bngiana 
was  carrying  on  at  this  time. 

II    GEOG 


1 62 

3.  The  Great  Compromises  of  the  Convention 

4.  The  Constitution:    New  Jersey's  plan;    Virginia's  plan 

a.  The  principles  upon  which  our  institutions  are  based 

b.  Simple  outlines  of  structure  of  our  government 

5.  Adoption 

a.  Method 

b.  Difficulty  of  getting  states  to  surrender  more  power  to 

nation — 1788 
XII.     The   nation's   problems   during  the   following   40   years   and   how 
they  were  met 

A.  Setting  the  new  government  in  motion 

1.  Washington  as  President 

a.  Election 

b.  Excellent  judgment  in  making  appointments 

(1)  Cabinet 

(2)  Judiciary 

2.  Hamilton  and  his  financial  policy 

a.  Credit  of  United  States  established 

b.  Uniform  currency  through  United   States  bank 

3.  Testing  constitutionality  of  laws  in  Adams  administration 

4.  Twelfth  amendment  and  why  it  was  necessary 

5.  Slavery  under  the  Constitution 

B.  How  the  United  States  gained  the  respect  of  foreign  nations 


European    Events 

1.  French  revolution 


2.  Rise  of  Napoleon's  power  in 
public  of  France 


3.  Allied  war  against  Napoleon 


4.  Napoleon  becomes   emperor 


5.  Congress  of  Vienna 


American    Events 

1.  Washington's  avoidance  of  for- 
eign complications;  neutrality 
of  1795 
Re-  2.  Complication  of  foreign  rela- 
tions during  Adams'  adminis- 
tration 

a.  By  treatment  of  citizens  of 

belligerent,    countries     in 
United   States 

b.  By   France's   declaration  of 

war  against  United  States 

3.  Jefferson's  increase  of  United 
States'  power  by  Louisiana 
purchase 

4.  How  embargoes  are  now  em- 
ployed in  time  of  international 
trouble;  use  made  by  United 
States  during  Jefferson's  ad- 
ministration 

5.  Commercial  or  Second  War  with 
England 

a.  Why  such  a  war  was  fought 

b.  How  we  might  have  avoided 
it 


i63 

6.  Holy  Alliance  c.  Our    unpreparedness    for   it 

(compare   with   our   pres- 
ent condition) 

d.  Important   engagements    on 

sea  and  land 

e.  Important  results  to  United 

States 

C.  What   changes   in   the  social   and   industrial   development  of 
the  new  nation  occurred   during  the  first  forty  years? 

1.  Transportation  and  communication 

a.  National  road 

b.  Erie  Canal 

c.  Railroads 

d.  Steamboat 

2.  Sectional  development 

a.  South 

(1)  Cotton   growing   increased   by   cotton   gin 

(2)  Free  trade 

(3)  Growing   desire   for  more   slave   territory 

b.  North 

'  (1)  Growth  of  manufacturing 

(2)  Tariff  for  protection 

(3)  Slavery  unprofitable 

c.  "West 

(1)  Agricultural 

(2)  Distribution  of  land 

(3)  Internal   improvement  question 

3.  Education 

a.  Early  schools  and  colleges 

b.  Beginnings  of  literature 

(1)  Irving 

(2)  Cooper 

(3)  Bryant 

4.  Newspapers,  etc. 

CIVICS 

Time  allotment,  one  recitation  a  week. 

The  value  of  an  elementary  school  education,  the  value  of 
the  public  schools  to  a  given  community,  and  the  value  of  the 
industries  of  a  given  community  are  important  problems  for 
seventh  grade  pupils. 

In  presenting  the  first  problem — value  of  an  elementary  school 
education — the  teacher  should  lead  the  pupils  to  see  that  through 
the  public  schools,  more  than  through  any  other  agency,  Ameri- 


i64 

can  boys  and  girls  are  getting  acquainted  with  the  tools  of 
knowledge. 

These  children  can  see  and  appreciate  the  great  value  that 
comes  from  being  able  to  read,  to  write,  to  understand  and  use 
number  combinations,  to  use  their  hands  with  skill.  The  teacher 
should  also  show  how  the  public  schools  give  training  in  the 
important  virtues  of  life  as  indicated  in  fifth  grade  civics,  and 
in  health  and  thrift  as  indicated  in  sixth  grade  work.  If  the 
importance  of  the  work  of  the  public  school  as  indicated  in  the 
courses  in  civics  in  grades  V  and  VI  is  reviewed  as  a  basis  for 
seventh  grade  work,  the  pupils  are  ready  to  emphasize  in  this 
grade  the  value  in  money  and  opportunity  of  a  public  school 
education. 

All  normal  children  are  interested  in  their  own  education, 
especially  with  reference  to:  (i)  What  they  are  able  to  earn 
by  means  of  it;  (2)  How  more  schooling  will  aid  them  toi  in- 
crease their  earning  power;  (3)  What  they  will  be  able  to  save; 
(4)  What  good  they  will  be  able  to  accomplish  with  their  time 
and  earnings;  (5)  The  way  in  which  the  schools  of  their  com- 
munity make  for  a  better  community. 

These  questions  can  be  made  live  issues.  The  question  of 
remaining  in  school  above  the  sixth  grade  is  partially  an  eco- 
nomic question  to  many  of  our  boys  and  girls.  These  pupils  of 
the  seventh  grade  can  learn  much  from,  a  discussion  showing 
why  they  should  remain  in  school  longer.  They  could  earn 
money  if  they  were  to  leave  school.  It  is  a  practical  civics  prob- 
lem for  them  to  discuss  why  it  will  pay  them  to  increase  their 
earning  power  by  staying  in  school  longer.  If  by  remaining  in 
school  longer  they  will  be  able  to  get  such  training  that  later  in 
life  they  can  earn  much  more  money,  it  will  be  important  for 
them  to  learn  this.  Further,  it  should  be  pointed  out  that  pupils 
without  at  least  twelve  years  of  schooling  or  its  equivalent  will 
be  shut  out  from  all  professions.  The  work  which  they  had 
upon  thrift  in  the  sixth  grade  will  be  appropriate  at  this  point, 
for  the  seventh  grade  pupils  can  see  that  they  can  afford  to  be 
very  careful  with  their  spending  money  in  order  that  they  may 
go  to  school  longer,  or  in  cases  where  they  must  earn  their  own 
money  to  be  able  to  go  to  school,  they  will  see  reasons  for 
spending  it  more  wisely.  The  questions  of  attendance,  punctu- 
ality and  tardiness  also  become  real  civic  questions  for  these 
boys  and  girls. 


i65 

In  all  these  discussions  the  pupils  will  have  vital  experiences 
with  which  they  can  make  direct  connections.  For  example,  the 
boy  who  makes  a  dollar  a  week  cutting  grass  and  who  spends 
ninety  cents  buying  clothes  for  himself,  or  puts  that  amount  in 
the  savings  bank,  or  purchases  books  with  it,  is  doing  lasting 
good  to  himself  and  family.  x\lso,  the  boy  who  earns  a  dollar  a 
week  and  uses  but  forty  cents  of  that  dollar  for  clothes,  books 
or  investment  in  savings  bank  is  still  spending  his  money  with 
some  thought  for  the  future,  but  with  less  thought  than  the  other 
boy  mentioned.  When  these  pupils  see  that  by  spending  their 
money  carefully  and  wisely  they  are  assisting  their  parents,  there- 
by making  it  possible  for  them  to  obtain  more  schooling,  they  are 
practicing  good  civic  habits. 

The  teacher  is  to  hold  constantly  in  mind  the  fact  that  the  ex- 
ample suggested  is  only  a  starting  point.  The  question  of  saving 
money,  of  spending  it  wisely,  and  of  doing  good  for  one's  com- 
munity, reaches  far  beyond  the  particular  individual.  For  ex- 
ample, a  classroom  can  make  money  by  selling  posters  or  calen- 
dars or  manual  training  projects.  Here  is  a  community  project 
in  which  a  classroom  makes  money  for  a  definite  purpose.  This 
money  can  be  saved  and  spent  for  schoolroom  decoration  or  for 
purchasing  a  phonograph.  Such  an  approach  is  even  more  valu- 
able than  that  which  considers  a  single  individual,  for  the  whole 
classroom  is  at  work  practicing  and  experimenting  in  civics. 
When  a  group  of  children  has  made  money  there  is  always  a 
possibility  of  waste. 

When  one  carries  the  principle  to  a  wider  range  still  more 
vital  problems  are  suggested  to  the  classroom  teacher.  Here  she 
can  present  the  subject  of  the  saving  of  money  by  the  community 
in  order  that  the  boys  and  girls  may  go  to  school.  This  money 
can  be  spent  in  building  schoolhouses,  in  paying  teachers'  sala- 
ries, in  hiring  janitors,  in  purchasing  textbooks,  in  buying  paper, 
pencils,  ink,  etc.  Here  the  children  are  directly  connected  with 
the  whole  community  of  interests  which  look  after  the  children's 
education.  In  this  way  the  pupils  are  directly  interested  in  certain 
questions :  why  a  board  of  education  wants  good  teachers ;  why 
a  superintendent  of  schools  or  principal  wants  good  teachers; 
why  the  parents  want  good  teachers;  why  a  board  of  education 
wants  to  buy  good  textbooks ;  why  it  wants  to  buy  suitable  sup- 
plies and  at  reasonable  prices;    why  the  teachers  and  children 


i66 

want  to  work  with  good  textbooks  and  good  supplies ;  why  the 
children  should  be  interested  in  cutting  down  the  waste  in  pencils, 
paper,  pens,  drawing  material.  The  whole  schoolroom  is  thus 
alive  to  the  practical  problems  which  are  immediately  around 
teacher  and  children,  with  which  the  children  like  to  work  and 
upon  which  they  are  anxious  to  express  opinions.  To  collect 
some  data,  to  express  some  opinion,  is  worth  very  much  to  these 
children.  For  the  children  to  work  these  opinions  over  and  to 
check  their  own  practices  in  the  light  of  these  opinions,  is  the 
most  valuable  civics  possible. 

PROBLEMS 

As  an  example  of  a  definite  project  for  a  seventh  grade  civics 
class,  the  following  suggestions  are  given. 

Select  a  group  of  seven  or  eight  children  and  let  this  group 
have  for  its  problem,  "What  is  the  waste  in  paper  in  our  school 
for  a  given  month?"  Let  the  committee  of  children  collect  the 
waste-baskets  of  the  various  rooms  of  a  given  building  at  random 
days — for  example,  two  afternoons  of  each  week  for  a  period  of 
three  weeks.  Let  them  examine  the  papers  found  in  the  waste- 
baskets,  taking  notes  upon  at  least  two  items :  ( i )  the  amount 
of  unused  space  on  the  papers  found;  (2)  the  amount  of  poor 
and  untidy  work  found  on  the  paper.  These  amounts  can  be 
handled  in  terms  of  pages  and  half  pages.  When  this  part  of 
the  committee's  work  has  been  done  it  can  determine  in  per- 
centage the  amount  of  the  paper  wasted  in  a  given  room  for  a 
given  time.  If  there  are  several  rooms  in  the  contest  these  rooms 
should  be  scored  on  the  basis  of  their  value  in  saving  money  for 
the  community.  The  percentage  of  untidy  and  soiled  paper 
would  also  indicate  the  room's  standing.  Such  procedure  is  a 
practical  demonstration  in  schoolroom  cooperation.  If  used 
rightly  it  would  save  money  for  a  community  and  give  the  grow- 
ing children  of  that  community  the  necessary  attitude  toward  the 
right  use  of  public  funds. 

It  is  hoped  that  teacher  and  pupils  will  make  the  second  large 
problem — value  of  the  public  schools  to  a  given  community — a 
vital  issue  in  stimulating  pupil  interest  in  the  school  and  the  com- 
munity which  it  serves,  and  in  stimulating  parent  and  citizen 
interest  in  the  school  and  community  as  cooperating  agencies  for 
the  good  of  all.     As  indicated  in  the  outline,  class  work  should 


i67 

be  upon  practical  questions  showing  how  the  schools  are  sup- 
ported, how  they  are  administered,  how  school  children  may  help 
in  having  good  schools,  what  the  community  thinks  of  its  schools, 
etc. 

The  third  large  problem  suggested — industries  of  one's  com- 
munity— offers  opportunities  to  show  the  relationship  of  the 
general  community  industry  with  the  work  of  the  schools.  Prac- 
tical discussions  here  show  how  the  school  children  are  influenced 
by  what  the  industries  are,  how  they  make  for  better  schools, 
what  employment  they  offer  for  the  people  of  the  community, 
why  the  schools  should  be  interested  in  the  industries  of  the  com- 
munity. All  these  suggestions  show  the  necessity  for  pupils  of 
the  seventh  grade  to  study  their  immediate  community  with 
reference  to  w^hat  it  does. 

The  problems  in  the  following  outline  should  stimulate  teacher 
and  pupils  to  their  best  efforts. 

I.  Public  school  education 

1.  Value 

a.  To  the  individual   children   of  a  community 

(1)  Gives  them  the  tools  of  knowledge 

(2)  Trains  them  in  habits  of  health 

(3)  Gives  skill  in  use  of  hands 

(4)  Teaches  the  value  of  such  virtues  as  truthfulness, 

politeness,  industry,  obedience  and  reverence 

b.  To  the  life  of  the  community 

(1)  Creates  interest  In  community  welfare 

(2)  Makes  it  possible  for  all  people  of  a  community  to 

receive  training 

(3)  Furnishes  leaders  for  community 

2.  Cost 

a.  In  time 

b.  In  money 

3.  Responsibilities  of  these  who  have  received  schooling 

II.  Public  schools  of  your  community 

1.  How  they  are  supported 

2.  How  administered 

3.  How  related  to  the  home 

4.  How  home  and  school  can  cooperate 

5.  How  they  serve  the  community 

6.  How  related  to  public  library 

7.  How  related    to    police    departments,    police    courts,    juvenile 

courts,  attendance  officer,  work  of  the  justice  of  peace,  con- 
stable, town  and  county  jails 


1 68 

8.  How  related  to  recreational  parks 

9.  How  related  to  the  different  occupations  of  the  community 

10.  How  the  growth  of  the  schools  is  related  to  the  growth  of  the 

community 

11.  What  the  community  thinks  of  its  schools 

12.  How  the   community   shows   its   attitude   toward   the   work   of 

the  schools 

13.  How  the  school  children  may  help  in  having  good  schools 

a.  By  taking  care  of  the  buildings  and  grounds 

b.  By  taking  care  of  equipment  and  supplies 

c.  By  talking  about  the  good  things  in  school  life 

d.  By  making  good  use  of  their  time  in  and  out  of  school 

III.    Industries  of  your  community 

1.  How  they  furnish  employment 

2.  How  they  tie  up  the  work  of  one  person  with  another 

3.  Why  these  industries  are  factors  in  making  good  roads 

4.  How  good  roads  are  factors  in  promoting  good  school  accom- 

modations 

5.  How  these  industries  should  make  for  the  good  of  the  com- 

munity 

6.  Necessity  for  connection  of  one  community  with  another 

a.  By  means  of  good  roads 

b.  By  means  of  good  railroad  or  waterway  connection 

c.  By  means  of  telephone,  telegraph  or  radio 

7.  Necessity  for  mutual  development  of  the  various  communities 


SUPPLEMENTARY  AND  REFERENCE  BOOKS  FOR  PUPILS 
AND  TEACHER 

GRADES  Vn  AND  VHI 

Beacon  Biography  Series.     Small  Maynard,  Chicago 

Eison,  H.  W.     Side  Lights  on  American  History.     Macmillan,  N.  Y. 

Franklin's  Autobiography.     Ginn,  N.  Y.    Also  Houghton,  Boston 

Hill,  F,  T.     On  the  Trail  of  Washington.    Appleton,  N.  Y. 

Mace,  W.  H.    Washington  a  Virginia  Cavalier.    Rand  McNally,  Chicago 

Mowry,  William.     Clara  Barton.     Silver  Burdette,  N.  Y. 

Roosevelt,  Theodore.     Winning  of  the  West.     Putnam,  N.  Y. 

Schouler,   James,     Alexander  Hamilton.      (Riverside  edition)    Houghton, 

Boston 
Seelye,  E.  E.    Christopher  Columbus.    Appleton,  N.  Y. 
Stone,  G.  L.  &  Fickett,  M.  G.    Days  and  Deeds  of  a  Hundred  Years  Ago. 

Heath,  Boston 


169 

GRADE  VIII 
HISTORY 

The  work  of  the  eighth  grade  should  begin  at  the  point  where 
the  seventh  grade  work  closed,  namely,  at  the  end  of  the  period 
in  which  our  nation  developed  itself  industrially  and  commerci- 
ally, and  thereby  took  its  place  among  the  other  nations  of  the 
world. 

The  first  half  of  this  year  should  complete  the  textbook.  In 
outlining  the  work  in  this  way,  it  is  recommended  that  during 
the  term  time  be  set  apart  when  current  history  can  be  taken  up 
for  regular  classroom  work.  It  is  also  recommended  that  all  the 
important  history  movements  that  have  developed  within  the  last 
three  or  four  years  be  discussed  in  the  classroom  and  that  they 
be  evaluated  by  the  pupils  of  the  eighth  grade  as  a  part  of  the 
regular  work  of  this  course.  If  the  work  in  the  seventh  and 
eighth  grades  is  followed  as  outhned  the  teacher  must  of  neces- 
sity pick  out  those  important  events  and  movements  in  history 
that  ought  to  be  stressed.  Many  of  the  lesser  facts  and  move- 
ments in  history  should  have  but  very  little  discussion.  The 
teacher  will  increase  materially  the  value  of  history  in  the  seventh 
and  eighth  grades  if  she  pays  special  attention  to  those  values 
and  movements  in  history  that  have  been  important  in  solving 
large  and  vital  questions.  Little  attention  should  be  given  to 
mere  battles  or  series  of  battles  in  wars.  If  time  and  energy  are 
saved  by  eliminating  parts  of  history,  as  suggested,  there  will  be 
sufficient  time  for  the  completion  of  the  work.  More  important 
still,  there  will  be  keener  and  more  wide-awake  interest. 

Bach  eighth  grade  teacher  should  read  carefully  that  part  of 
this  monograph  which  evaluates  the  methods  of  teaching  history 
in  the  seventh  grade.  She  should  examine  also  the  work  as 
organised  for  the  seventh  grade,  in  order  to  build  sympathetically 
upon  the  foundation  made  in  seventh  grade. 

FBOBLKUB 

I.    The  early  history  of  New  Jersey  is  of  particular  interest  to  us. 
Justify  selection  of  important  events 

1.  Indian  occupation 

2.  Early  settlements 

a.  At  Bergen,  Elizabethtown 
h.  In  New  Sweden 


170 

3.  East  and  West  Jersey  (the  Jerseys) 

a.  First  settlers — Puritans,  Huguenots,  Friends 

b.  How  governed 

c.  Political  divisions 

(1)  East  Jersey — Bergen,  Essex,   Middlesex,   Monmouth, 

Somerset 

(2)  West   Jersey — Burlington,    Gloucester,    Salem,    Cape 

May,  Hunterdon 

d.  Their  union 

4.  New  Jersey 

a.  In  Revolution;    also  in  the  Confederation  under  the  Con- 

stitution 

b.  As  a  state 

(1)  Its   government — constitution,   governor,    senate   and 

assembly 

(2)  Its  growth 

(a)  Natural  resources 

ib)  Industries 

(c)  Canals  and  railroads 

id)  Schools 

II.  The  greatness  of  our  country  has  depended  largely  on  its  terri- 
torial growth.  How  important  were  the  acquisitions  made  prior 
to  the  Civil  War? 

1.  Northwest  territory — north  of  Ohio  and  east  of  Mississippi 

a.  Extended  dominion 

b.  Opened  up  waterway  on  Great  Lakes 

c.  Its  relation  to  the  slavery  question  later 

2.  Louisiana  purchase 

a.  Explain  importance  to  United  States 

b.  Constitutionality  of  purchase  ^ 

c.  Services  of  Lewis  and  Clark 

3.  Florida  purchase 

a.  Completed  southern  coast  line 

b.  Settled  difficulties  with  Spain 

4.  Annexation  of  Texas 

a.  Concession  to  South 

b.  Aroused  anti-slavery  movement 

c.  Effect  upon  political  campaign  of  1844 

5.  Mexican  conquest 

a.  Cause  of — desire  for  expansion  of  slave  territory 

b.  Value  of  land  acquired 

c.  Effect  upon  slavery  question 

d.  Revived  idea  of  Panama  Canal 

e.  Secured  ports  for  direct  trade  with  the  Orient 

6.  The  Oregon  country 

a.  Fixed  northwestern  boundary 

b.  Step  in  advance  in  international  arbitration 

7.  Gadsden  purchase 


171 

III.  What  were  the  causes  which  led  to  the  disruption  of  the  Union, 
or  why  was  the  period  from  1820-1865  a  period  of  struggle 
between  the  states  and  the  nation? 

1.  Discover  the  concrete  cause  of  this  struggle 

a.  State  sovereignity — due  to  the  fact  that  the  states  existed 

first  and  then  granted  power  to  the  nation 

b.  Slavery — its  birth  and  growth 

c.  Western  lands 

d.  Tariff 

2.  Important   situations   between   1789   and   1860   which   indicated 

the  growing  struggle 

a.  Virginia  and   Kentucky  resolutions 

b.  Hartford  convention 

c.  Situation  in  South  Carolina,  1828-33 

(1)  How  Jackson  saved  the  Union 

(2)  Webster-Hayne  debate^ 

3.  Breach  between  North  and  South  widened 

a.  Missouri  Compromise 

b.  Publishing  of  anti-slavery  journal 

c.  Founding  of  anti-slavery  societies 

d.  Mexican  cession  and  Wilmot  Proviso 

e.  Fugitive  Slave  Law,  Compromise  of  1850 

f.  "Uncle  Tom's   Cabin"   and   kindred   publications;     Kansas- 

Nebraska  bill  and  Civil  War  in  Kansas 

g.  Dred  Scott  Decision 

h.  Lincoln-Douglass  Debate 
i.  Election  of  Lincoln  as  President 

rv.     How  the  country  was  benefited  by  forcing  the  South  back  Into 
the  Union 

1.  Comparison  of  North  and  South  at  beginning  of  war  with  re- 

spect to 

a.  Area  and  population 

b.  Wealth 

c.  Natural  and  industrial  resources 

d.  Relations  with  foreign  countries 

e.  Experienced  generals 

f.  War  strength 

g.  Transportation  routes 
h.  Devotion  of  the  people 

2.  Important   offensive  plans   of  the   North;     important  defensive 

plans  of  the  South 

3.  Method  of  securing  and  distributing  munitions  and  supplies 

a.  In  the  North   (  Indicate  advantages  and 

b.  In  the  South   \  disadvantages  obtaining 

'  Teachers  can  well  use  both  speeches  of  this  debate  in  teaching  the 
most  important  arguments  of  the  several  sectional  quarrels— slavery, 
nullification,  etc. 


172 

.  4.  Stages  in  the  progress  of  the  great  conflict 

a.  Battle  of  Bull  Run 

b.  The  fight  between  the  Monitor  and  the  Merrimac 

c.  Capture  of  New  Orleans  and  Vicksburg 

d.  President  Lincoln's  Emancipation  Proclamation 

e.  The  battle  of  Gettysburg 

/.  Sherman's  March  to  the  Sea 
g.  Lee's  final  surrender 

5.  The  contributions  made  to  the  northern  cause  by  such  men  as 

Lincoln,  Grant,  Seward,  Stanton,  Sherman,  Sheridan,  McClel- 
lan,  Farragut,  Thomas,  Meade,  Hancock,  Hooker 

6.  Contributions    made   to   the    southern    cause    by    such   men   as 

Davis,   Lee,    Stuart,   Early,   the   Johnstons,   J.   B.   and   A.    S., 
Jackson,  Pickett,  Ewell,  Longstreet 

7.  Results  of  the  conflict 

a.  Upon   the   immediate   progress   of   the    South:     industries, 

economic  condition,  problem  of  reconstruction 

b.  Upon  the  nation  as  a  whole 

V.    National  affairs  after  the  war  were  in  a  trying  condition.    Picture 
the  problem  which  confronted  the  country 

1.  Conditions  in  South 

0.  Idea  of  secession  extinguished 

b.  Confederate  leaders  Milling  to  take  oath  of  allegiance 

c.  Freed  slaves  suddenly  thrown  on  the  public 

d.  Poverty  everywhere  in  the  South 

2.  Needs  for  reconstruction 

3.  How  the  problems  of  reconstruction  were  solved 

VI.  Political  parties  have  been  of  great  value  in  our  national  growth. 
A  brief  study  should  be  made  of  the  principal  parties  and  the 
measures  they  supported.  Each  party  studied  should  be  con- 
nected directly  with  the  appropriate  events  upon  which  it  has 
influence,   and  which  influence  party  progress 

1.  Federalists 

a.  Interpretation  of  constitution 

b.  Attitude  toward  Hamilton's  policy 

c.  Attitude  toward  war  of  1812 

2.  Anti-federalists 

a.  Interpretation  of  constitution 

b.  Attitute  toward  financial  policy  for  nation 

3.  Republicans 

Important  principles  which  this   party  has   adhered  to   and 
progress  of  party 

4.  Democrats 

Important  principles   which   this   party   has   adhered   to   and 
progress  of  party 


173 

VII.     How  have  the  steps  in  our  financial  development  established  for 
us  national  currency  and  credit?^ 

1.  Value  of  Hamilton's  financial  policy  in  paying  debts  and  estab- 

lishing credit 

2.  Value  of  Gallatin's  policy  of  economy  during  Jefferson's  adminis- 

tration 

3.  Value  of  Second  United  States  Bank 

4.  Causes  and  results  of  financial  panics  of  1837  and  1857 

5.  Great  financial   strain   due  to  Civil  War  expenses 

6.  Growth  in  financial  supremacy  since  Civil  War 

VIII.    To  what  ends  have  adjustments  in  the  tariff  been  made?* 

1.  The  tariff  has  always  been  a  controverted  subject 

2.  Concrete  situations  have  demanded  changes 

a.  What  great  changes  have  been  made? 

b.  What  were  the  causes  of  these  changes? 

IX.     The   United    States   has    become    a   great    nation.     What   recent 
phases  of  her  progress  have  led  to  this  greatness? 

1.  Remarkable  increase  in  population 

a.  Immigration 

b.  Growth  of  cities 

2.  Territorial  expansion 

a.  Cuba 

b.  Porto  Rico 

c.  Hawaiian  Islands 

d.  Philippine  Islands 

e.  Guam 

3.  Industrial  achievements 

a.  Invention  and  use  of  labor  saving  machinery 

b.  Manufactures  increased,  especially  in  the  South 

c.  Scientific  agriculture 

d.  Developments  in  trade  and  commerce  and  transportation 

(1)  Improved  railroads  and  transcontinental  lines 

(2)  Electric  trains,  trolley  lines  and  subways 

(3)  Telephone,  telegraph,  telegraphic  cable,  radio 

(4)  Interstate  Commerce  Commission 

(5)  Panama  Canal 


^  The  teacher  is  to  bear  in  mind  that  pupils  of  the  eighth  grade  are 
not  to  make  an  exhaustive  study  of  the  finance  of  our  country.  She 
will  accomplish  her  purpose  if  the  pupils  are  able  to  sense  the  necessity 
for  sound  government  credit,  and  the  necessity  for  economy  in  use  or 
money. 

'Pupils  are  not  to  make  an  exhaustive  study  of  the  tariff  question. 
The  work  should  be  limited  to  the  use  of  revenue  tariff  and  protective 
tariff;  concrete  examples  of  how  the  government  of  the  United  States 
raises  taxes;  purposes  of  such  taxes;  effect  upon  certain  sections  or 
the  country  of  changes  in  tariff  policy;  the  three  or  four  great  cbanges 
in  the  tariff  policy  of  the  United  States.  Show  clearly  how  the  War  or 
1812,  the  Civil  War,  and  the  present  World  War  have  affected  our  tariff^ 
It  would  be  profitable  to  have  pupils  connect  the  platforms  of  the  leaamg 
parties  with  the  tariff  question. 


174 

4.  Civil  Service  reform 

5.  Purifying  of  elections  by  adoption  of  Australian  System 

6.  Cruise  of  Atlantic  Fleet — a  display  of  naval  power  and  efiBciency 

7.  Conservation  of  forests,  fish,  and  wild  game 

8.  National  expositions 

X.  What  inventions,  discoveries  and  improvements  have  made  our 
present  highly  developed  industrial  conditions  possible?  What 
dangers  lie  in  this  development? 

1.  Inventions   (Let  pupils  list  any  inventions  which  they  may  be 

able  to  learn  about  from  1789  to  the  present  day  and  tell 
the  effect  upon  any  certain  industry) 

2.  Discoveries  (The  same  type  of  problem  as  in  1  may  be  worked 

out  regarding  discovery  of  coal,  silver,  gold,  etc.  Pupils 
should  be  shown  the  significance  of  Admiral  Peary's  dis- 
covery of  the  North  Pole) 

3.  Improvements    (The   same  regarding  road   conditions,   develop- 

ment of  scientific  farming,  conservation  of  forests,   etc)' 

XI.     Other  suggestive  problems 

1.  Where  did  we  get  our  present  social  customs 

a.  Their  European  origin 

b.  As  they  were  in  1763 

c.  As  they  were  in  1850 

d.  As  they  are  now 

2.  How  have  our   educational   facilities   been   improved   since   the 

Civil  War 

3.  Immigration  and  what  we  are  doing  with  the  immigrant 

a.  Tides  of  immigration 

b.  Recent  tides  from  southern  Europe 

c.  Reason  for  less  immigration  since  1914 

d.  Present  literacy  test  and  its  effect 

CIVICS 

Time  allotment,  five  periods  a  week  for  one  half  year. 

All  eighth  grade  children  should  have  opportunities  to  study 
a  modern  textbook  in  civics.  This  textbook  should  be  written 
from  the  point  of  view  of  the  principles  which  underlie  this 
monograph  in  civics.  This  textbook  should  furnish  means  by 
which  the  boys  and  girls  of  the  eighth  grade  could  learn  how 
society  is  organized  in  their  immediate  community,  in  their  town, 
township,  county,  state,  and  finally  in  the  nation.  Teachers  will 
find  further  help  by  consulting  monograph  5  of  the  high  school 

^It  is  suggested  that  pupils  in  these  grades  be  encouraged  to  take 
some  one  topic,  such  as,  "The  lighting  of  homes,"  "Traveling,"  and 
work  out  the  complete  pro'blem  with  pictures,  charts,  maps,  and  written 
explanations.  In  this  way  the  child  himself  becomes,  for  the  time  being, 
a  young  historian 


I 


175 

series  entitled,  The  Teaching  of  Community  Civics  and  the 
Study  of  Vocations.  Eighth  grade  children  naturally  want  to 
know  much  about  the  way  in  which  their  immediate  county, 
municipal  and  state  affairs  are  conducted.  When  the  teacher  gives 
them  an  opportunity  to  learn  more  about  civic  and  social  con- 
trol, and  approaches  these  factors  of  government  from  the  point 
of  view  of  the  children's  need,  she  does  away  with  the  formal 
textbook  study  of  civil  government.  Therefore  she  uses  a  wide- 
awake textbook  in  civics  as  one  of  the  means  by  which  the  chil- 
dren get  answers  to  their  vital  questions.  Other  means  are 
pamphlets  issued  by  state  and  local  authorities,  town  and  county 
official  reports,  school  appropriations,  magazine  articles,  news- 
paper editorials  and  clippings,  and  pupil  investigations  into  com- 
munity undertakings.  The  teacher  must  constantly  hold  in  mind 
that  her  work  is  not  to  make  a  detailed  analysis  of  our  govern- 
ment, but  rather  to  see  the  relations  that  the  given  community 
bears  to  the  government,  and  the  relation  among  elements  that 
make  for  communit}^  welfare. 

In  studying  civic  problems,  both  state  and  national,  the  teacher 
must  give  the  pupils  many  and  varied  opportunities  to  put  them- 
selves in  the  places  of  the  people  who  organize  these  institutions. 
For  example,  in  studying  state  government  or  national  govern- 
ment, no  formal  attempt  should  be  made  to  study  the  bare  con- 
stitution of  either  the  state  or  the  nation.  On  the  other  hand, 
she  should  provide  opportunities  by  which  the  children  could 
organize  themselves  into  groups  representing  the  people  who 
were  responsible  for  our  state  and  national  constitutions.  Three 
or  four  days  of  wide-awake  work,  in  which  groups  of  pupils 
have  a  part  in  actually  organizing  constitutional  conventions 
and  in  debating  upon  the  relative  merits  of  different  articles  and 
sections  of  constitutions  under  consideration,  are  of  more  lasting 
value  than  any  amount  of  memoriter  work  or  listless  reading  of 
the  constitution.  This  illustrates  a  way  by  which  the  eighth 
grade  boys  and  girls  put  definite  usable  meanings  into  a  civics 
textbook. 

It  is  as  essential  for  the  teacher  to  base  her  work  upon  the 
relative  values  in  textbooks  when  she  is  dealing  with  civics  as  it 
is  when  she  is  dealing  with  geography  or  history.  In  fact, 
pupils  of  the  eighth  grade  should  be  made  aware  of  this  necessity 
to  look  for  important  facts  in  the  books  and  should  be  able  at 
the  beginning  of  the  term's  work  to  have  an  opinion  upon  what 


176 

is  most  essential  for  them  to  study.  It  is  not  necessary,  then, 
to  cover  all  the  pages  of  the  textbook  in  civics.  The  important 
consideration  is  for  the  teacher  to  know  what  topics  to  con- 
sider and  to  provide  opportunities  for  classroom  discussion  of 
those  that  are  important;  to  reinforce  this  daily  by  provisions 
for  individual  and  class  project  work,  and  for  practice  in  acts 
of  community  and  national  civics.  Many  times  through  the 
year  she  should  ask  herself  this  question:  "What  difference  is 
my  civics  teaching  making  in  the  lives  of  my  boys  and  girls?" 
When  she  is  able  to  see  that  her  pupils  are  constantly  becoming 
viore  and  more  cooperative  in  their  actions,  more  and  more 
interested  in  the  life  of  their  community,  mere  and  more  willing 
to  obey  the  laws  of  their  state  and  their  nation,  she  is  doing  vital 
civics  teaching. 

SUGGESir^E  PROBLEMS 

The  following  topics  are  suggested  for  vital  civics  teaching: 

1.  What  should  our  local  roads  cost  per  mile? 

2.  How  are  good  schools  and  good  roads  related  to  a  grow- 
ing community? 

3.  How  necessary  is  it  for  the  township  to  have  good  roads? 

4.  Why  should  boys  and  girls  be  interested  in  their  own  com- 
munity? 

5.  How  can  this  schoolroom  or  building  gradually  become  par- 
tially a  self-governing  group? 

6.  Why  should  a  school  superintendent  be  diligent  in  enforcing 
the  compulsory  attendance  law? 

7.  Why  should  a  community  be  willing  to  pay  for  a  good  water 
supply?   a  good  sewer  system?  playground  centers? 

8.  Why  should  voters  be  as  much  interested  in  their  local  elec- 
tions as  they  are  in  the  national  election  ? 

9.  What  are  the  duties  of  the  board  of  health? 

10.  Excursions  by  class  or  selected  group  to  investigate  and 
report  upon 

a.  How  streets  are  cleaned 

b.  Conditions  of  roads 

c.  How  grocery  stores  and  meat-markets  obey  the  pure 

food  laws 

d.  How  a  civil  case  is  handled  in  county  court 

For   Supplementary   and   Reference   Books   for  Pupils   and 
Teacher  see  list  at  end  of  Grade  VII 


APPENDIX  A 
REFERENCE  BOOKS 

Andrews,  C.   M.,  Gambrill,  J.  M.  &  Tall,  L.   L.     Bibliography  of  History 

for  Schools  and  Libraries.     Longmans,  N.  Y. 
Bancroft,    J.    H.     Games    for   the   Playground,   Home,    School    and    Gym- 
nasium.    Macmillan,  N.  Y. 
Bourne,   H.   E.     Teaching  of  History  and  Civics.     Longmans,  N.  Y. 
Brigham,  A.  P.     Commercial  Geography.     Ginn,  N.  Y. 
Brigham,  A.  P.     Geographic  Influences  in  American  History.    Ginn,  N.  Y. 
Bryant,  S.  C.     How  to  tell  Stories  to  Children.     Houghton,  Boston 
Buxton,  G.  F.  &  Curran,  F.  L.    Paper  and  Cardboard  Construction.     Men- 

omonie  Press,  Menomonie,  Wis. 
Charter,  M.  W.     Teaching  the  Common  Branches.     Houghton,  Boston 
Cooley,  A.  M.  &  Sage,  Elizabeth.     Occupations  for  Little  Fingers.  Scrib- 

ner,  N.  Y. 
Course  of  Study  for  the  Public  Schools  of  Baltimore  County,  Maryland. 

Williams  &  Wilkins  Co.  Baltimore 
Craig,  A.  A.     The  Dramatic  Festival.     Putnam,  N.  Y. 
Curtis,  H.  S.     Play  and  Recreation.     Ginn,  N.  Y. 
Davis,    W.    M.     Progress   of   Geography   in   the    Schools.     University   of 

Chicago 
Dobbs,  E.  V.     Primary  Handvv^ork.     Macmillan,  N.  Y. 
Dodge,  R.  E.  &  Kirchwey,  C.  B.     Teaching  of  Geography  in  Elementary 

Schools.     Rand  McNally,  Chicago 
Dopp,  K.  E.     The  Place  of  Industries  in  Elementary  Education.     Chicago 

University  Press 
Dewey,  John.     How  we  Think.     Heath,  Boston 
Dewey,  John.    Interest  and  Effort.     Houghton,  Boston 
Dewey,  John.     The  School  and  Society.     (Revised  Edition)  Chicago  Uni- 
versity Press 
Dynes,  S.  A.     Socializing  the  Child.     Silver  Burdette,  N.  Y. 
Earhart,  L.  B.     Teaching  Children  to  Study.     Houghton,  Boston 
Earhart,  L.  B.     Types  of  Teaching.    Houghton,  Boston 
Gesell,  A.  L.  &  B.  C.     The  Normal  Child  and  Primary  Education.    Ginn, 

N.  Y. 
Hartwell,  E.  C.    Teaching  of  History.    Riverside  Educational  Monograph. 

Houghton,  Boston 
Hill,    Mabel.      Teaching    of   Civics.      Riverside   Educational    Monograph. 

Houghton,  Boston 
Holtz,  F.  L.    Principles  and  Methods  of  Teaching  Geography.    Macmillan, 

N.  Y. 
Hoxie,  Jane.     Handwork  for  Kindergarten  and  Primary  Grades.     Milton 

Bradley,  Boston 
Hutchinson,  Gregory  &  Lydekker.     Living  Races  of  Mankind.     Hutchin- 
son &  Co.  London 

12    GEOG  177 


178 

Johnson,  Henry.     Teaching  of  History.     Macmillan,  N.  Y. 

Johnson,  W.  E.     Mathematical  Geography.     American  Book  Co.  N.  Y. 

Journal  of  Geography.     University  of  "Wisconsin,  Madison,  Vv'is. 

Legge,  J.  H.     The  Thinking  Hand.     Macmillan,  N.  Y. 

Mace,  W.  H.    Method  in  History.    Ginn,  N.  Y. 

McMurry,  C.  A.  Making  and  Judging  Curricula  in  Geography.  Teachers 
College  Record  1915 

McMurry,  C.  A.     Special  Method  in  Geography.     Macmillan,  N.  Y. 

McMurry,  C,  A.     Special  Method  in  History.     Macmillan,  N.  Y. 

McMurry,  F.  M.  How  to  Study  and  Teaching  how  to  Study.  Houghton, 
Boston 

National  Geographic  Magazine.  National  Geographic  Society,  Washing- 
ton, D.  C. 

Ratzel,  Friedrich.     History  of  Mankind.     Macmillan,  N.  Y. 

Report  to  the  American  Historical  Association  by  the  Committee  of 
Eight  on  the  Study  of  History  in  the  Elementary  Schools.  Scribner, 
N.  Y. 

Robinson,  E.  V.    Commercial  Geography.    Rand  McNally,  Chicago 

Salisbury,  Barrows  and  Tower.     Elements  of  Geography.     Holt,  N.  Y. 

Semple,  E.  C.  American  History  and  its  Geographic  Conditions.  Hough- 
ton, Boston 

Semple,  E.  C.    Influence  of  Geographic  Environment.     Holt,  N.  Y. 

Smith,  J.  R.     Commerce  and  Industry.     Holt,  N.  Y. 

Starr,  Frederick.    American  Indians.     Heath,  Boston 

Starr,  Frederick.     Strange  Peoples.     Heath,  Boston 

Stevens,  Romiett.  The  Question  as  a  Means  of  Eflaciency  in  Instruction. 
Teachers  College,  N.  Y. 

Strayer,  G.  D.    Brief  Course  in  the  Teaching  Process.     Macmillan,  N.  Y. 

Strayer,  G.  D.  &  Norsworthy,  Naomi.     How  to  Teach.    Macmillan,  N.  Y. 

Sutherland,  W.  J.  The  Teaching  of  Geography.  Scott,  Foresman  &  Co. 
Chicago 

U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education.  Teaching  of  Community  Civics.  Bulletin 
650  (1915,  No.  23) 

WayJEnd,  J.  W.    How  to  Teach  American  History.     Macmillan,  N.  Y. 

Wilson,  H.  B.  &  G.  M.    Motivation  of  School  Work.    Houghton,  Boston 


APPENDIX  B 
LESSON  PLANS 

Many  teachers  of  the  state  kindly  submitted  lesson  plans  to 
indicate  the  quality  of  work  which  they  were  doing.  The  plans 
selected  are  representative.  Many  others  would  have  been  used 
but  for  lack  of  space. 

While  the  plans  given  are  not  necessarily  in  accordance  with 
the  principles  underlying  this  monograph,  yet  they  indicate  stimu- 
lating work  on  the  part  of  the  teachers,  and  they  should  offer 
many  helpful  suggestions. 

GEOGRAPHY 

GRADie   V 
The  Coal  Industry  of  the  United  States 

Teacher,  Rosena  M.  Gerhard,  East  Orange 
Teacher's  aims 

1.  To  teach,  tlie  mining  of  coal  in  the  United  States 

2.  To    show   that   coal   is   one  of   the  most   common   necessities   of 

civilization 
Child's  aims 

1.  To  know  the  extent  of  coal  mining  in  the  United  States 

2.  How  the  coal  industry  has  developed  all  our  other  industries 

Subject  Matter  Method   of    Procedure 

1.  Coal  fields  of  United  States  In  what  parts  of  the  United  States 

a.  Size  are  *he  coal  fields  located? 

ft.  Map  Look  at  coal  map.    What  states  In- 

cluded? 

2.  Formation  of  coal  How    was    coal    made?     What    do 

0.  Proof  that  coal  is  made  of  the  prints  of  leaves  and  ferns  on 

plant  remains  pieces   of   coal   teach   us?     How 

b.  Condition  of  earth  did    the    coal    form    in    layers? 

1)  Climate  You  go  to  the  country  and  see  a 

2)  Soil  wooded   section — what   were   the 

3)  Vegetation  conditions  that  made  it  so? 

c.  Period  of  time 

3.  Mining  coal  (Coal  fields  of  Penn- 

sylvania as  a  type) 

a.  Kinds  of  coal  Why  are  there  four  kinds  of  coalT 

1)  Peat  With    the    help    of    the    map    dis- 

2)  Lignite  tinguish    the    differences    in    the 

3)  Bituminous  regions  where  they  are  found 


4)  Anthracite 


179 


i8o 


The  pressure  caused  by  the  fold- 
ing of  the  mountain  rocks  has 
changed  soft  coal  to  hard  coal 

b.  Methods  of  mining 

1)  In  sunlight 

2)  Tunnel 

3)  Shaft    (Description    of 

shaft) 

4)  Comparison    of  Ameri- 

can with  Belgian  and 
English  methods  of 
mining 

c.  Transportation 

1)  Cars  to  tide-water  (50,- 

000  cars,  900  locomo- 
tives) 

2)  Barges 

3)  Rivers  and  lakes 

a)  Ohio 

b)  Allegheny 

c)  Monongahela 

d)  Mississippi 

e)  Great  Lakes 
4.  Uses  of  coal 

o.  Heating 

b.  Generates  steam 

c.  Drives  machinery 

d.  Electricity  is  made  with  its 

help 

e.  Gas    (product) 

f.  Coke   (by-product) 
K.  Child's  map 


Why  is  it  necessary  to  have  dif- 
ferent methods  of  mining  coal?' 

Children  may  tell  of  shafts  they 
have  seen  or  read  about 


Would  th©  price  of  coal  be  higher 
in  Maine  or  Ohio? 

What  are  the  needs  for  transpor- 
tation ? 

Why  are  the  lakes  and  rivers  so 
extensively  used? 


Is  there  any  industry  in  the  growth 
of  which  coal  has  not  had  its 
share? 

Conversation:  "Suppose  our  coal 
supply  were  suddenly  cut  off" 


Draw  a  map  of  the  country,  shad- 
ing the  regions  where  most  coal 
is  found  (Can  be  drawn  when 
children  study  "coal  regions"  if 
preferred) 


Production  of  Corn  in  the  United  States 

Teacher,  Dorothy  Conover,  Maplewood  School,  South  Orange 

I.     Aim 

1.  Teacher — to  vitalize  study  of  corn  production,  and  to  connect 

with  individual  life  of  child 

2.  Scholar — to  get  place,  uses  and  manner  of  com  production 
II.     Material 

1.  Maps  of  United  States — political;    blackboard  outline 

2.  Graph  of  corn-producing  states 

8.  Com  products  (brought  by  pupils) 


i8i 

I.     Organization 

1.  Determine  area  of  Corn  Belt 

a.  Which  requires  more  moisture,  corn  or  wheat? 

b.  Which  requires  higher  temperature? 

c.  Comparison  with  Dakotas   (already  studied) 

d.  Indicate  by  dotted  line  on  blackboard,  New  York 

2.  Corn  forms  most  important  food  for  man  and  animal 

a.  Name  three  articles  of  food  for  man  made  from  corn 

b.  From  what  animals  does  our  meat  supply  largely  come? 

On  what  food  are  these  fattened? 

c.  Is  stock  raising  an  important  industry  in  the  Com  Belt? 

Why? 

3.  Cities  noted  for  shipping  com,  etc. 

a.  Chicago 

b.  St.  Louis 

c.  Kansas  City 

d.  Omaha 

e.  Cleveland 
/.  Cincinnati 

g.  Indianapolis 

4.  Summary 

a.  Why  is  the  study  of  corn  so  important? 

b.  Name    the    states    constituting   the    "World's    Great    Com 

Patch"  in  order  of  importance 

c.  Give  seven  cities  of  this  section.     What  products  would 

they  be  particularly  noted  for? 

The  Cotton  Industry 

Teacher,  Sue  E.  Garis,  East  Orange 

I.  The  plant 

A.  Description  of  plant 

B.  Conditions  necessary  for  growth 

1.  Climate 

2.  Sxirface,  soil 

C.  Planting  and  cultivating 

D.  Picking 

E.  Ginning  and  baling 

F.  Uses 

1.  Clothing,  etc. 

2.  Medicinal  purposes 

3.  Seeds 

a.  Oil 

b.  Fertilizer 

c.  Cattle  food 

II.  Sections  where  grown 

A.  United  States 

1.  Upland 

2.  Sea  islands 

B.  Other  parts  of  the  world   (very  briefly) 


1 82 


III.  Cities 

A.  Ports  (southern) 

B.  Baling  centers 

C.  Manufacturing  centers 

1.  Southern  (Atlanta,  etc.) 

2.  Northern  (Lowell,  etc.) 

IV.  Routes  and  means  of  transportation 

A.  Home   (New  York  City  and  New  England  centers) 

B.  Foreign  (Manchester,  England,  etc.) 

Topic  I,  "The  Plant,"  has  been  worked  out  in  detail,  as  follows: 
Material.     Cotton,  cotton  halls,  pictures,  maps   (wall  and  class  outline 

maps    of    southern    section),    sand-table    (illustrating    cotton    fields    or 

cotton  wharf),  manufactured  cotton  of  all  kinds 
Aim.     (1)  To  teach  cotton  production;     (2)  To  teach  practical  use  of 

cotton  products 


D.  Picking.  Merry  scenes  in  field; 
negro  men,  women  and  chil- 
dren chattering,  singing  and 
working;  beautiful  appear- 
ance of  field;  machinery  im- 
practicable because  of  uneven 
ripening   of   cotton 


E,  Ginning  and  baling.  Amount  of 
labor  required  to  seed  cotton 
by  hand.  Story  of  Eli  Whit- 
ney 


F.  Uses 


Clothing,  etc.  Trace  on  map 
and  by  story  the  cotton  from 
field  to  gin,  from  gin  to  mill, 
from  mill  to  consumer 


Medicinal    purposes, 
very  briefiy 


D.  Pictures  of  cotton,  of  negroes. 
Why  were  there  slaves  in  the 
South?  Observation  of  cotton 
balls,  of  loose  cotton.  Chil- 
dren find  material  in  their 
books;  teacher  supplements 
from  other  books  or  by  story. 
Children  who  have  seen  cot- 
ton field  may  give  description 
as  additional 

E.  What  did  the  invention  of  the 
cotton  gin  mean  to  the  cotton 
planters?  Show  pictures  and 
miniature  sample  bale  of  cot- 
ton. Let  children  reproduce 
story  of  Eli  Whitney  (volun- 
teer work).  Children  find 
material  on  ginning  and  bal- 
ing and  reproduce 

F.  1.  Lead  children  to  realize  how 
much  cotton  clothing  they  are 
wearing.  Ask  (several  days 
before  lesson)  for  volunteers 
to    study    process    of    cotton 

manufacturing  of  various 
kinds.  Have  samples  (brought 
by  children)  of  clothing,  lace, 
thread,  etc.  Why  is  cotton 
cheaper  than  wool  or  silk? 
Touch  2.  Have  samples  brought  of  medi- 
cated cotton,  bandage,  gauze, 
etc.  Why  is  cotton  preferred 
to  wool  or  silk? 


i83 


3.  Seeds 
a.  Oil. 


Notice  that  where 
seeds  used  to  be  discarded 
they  now  bring  in  many 
thousands  of  dollars 
Fertilizer,  Notice  how 
plants  help  the  next  gen- 
eration of  plants  to  grow 
Cattle  food.  Notice  that 
nearly  every  part  of  the 
plant  is  used 


a.  What  other  oil  does  it  re- 
semble? Is  it  as  good?  For 
what  is  it  used?  Have  chil- 
dren find  and  reproduce  briefly 
the   process   of  oil   making 

b.  Have  children  study  briefly 
the  process  of  making  the 
fertilizer.     Of  what  use  is  it? 

c.  Recall  cattle's  fondness  for 
vegetable  matter.  Study  the 
process  of  making  the  food 
from  the  seeds.  Why  is  the 
cotton  a  good  plant  to  raise? 


GRADE   VI 


Map  Study 
Showing  Industrial  Development  of  Germany 

Teacher,  Raida  Oshorn,  East  Orange 

I.  Size.  Third  largest  country  in  Europe;  gives  opportunity  for  large 
population. 

II.  Position.  Central  Europe,  touching  chief  countries,  favors  commerce. 
Opening  on  North  and  Baltic  seas  gives  special  opportunity  for  trade 
with  England,  United  States  and  Baltic  countries. 

Temperate  zone,  where  westerly  winds  prevail,  and  nearness  to  Atlantic 
Ocean,  will  give  a  temperate  climate  and  sufficient  rainfall  for  the 
development  of  agriculture. 

III.  Surface.  Mountainous  in  south,  favors  mining;  also  lumbering  on 
wooded  slopes. 

Large  level  lowland  in  north  is  well  suited  for  agriculture  and  grazing. 

IV.  Drainage.  Many  long  rivers  flowing  through  a  long  plain  will 
develop  domestic  commerce.  The  Danube  flowing  to  the  Black  Sea  will 
give  opportunity  for  trade  with  Balkan  countries. 


Resources 
Central  location 
Seacoast 
Navigable  rivers 
Level  plain 

Temperate  climate 

Moderate   rainfall 

Mines 

Forests 


Summary 

Industries 
Commerce 
Fishing 

Grazing 

Agriculture 


Mining 
Lumbering 


Products 
Cod,   mackerel 

Cattle,     horses,     swine, 
sheep 

Grain,      fruits,      vege- 
tables 

Wood,   furniture 


i84 


Signs  of  Industrial  Progress 

Many  large  cities  show  a  large  population  and  indicate  manufacturing. 

Canals  and  railroads  indicate  domestic  commerce.  Large  cities  near 
mouths  of  rivers  indicate  foreign  commerce. 

Since  countries  which  have  a  large  population  and  engage  in  com- 
merce must  feed  and  shelter  their  people  and  produce  materials  for 
manufacture  and  commerce,  we  conclude  that  Germany  has  used  her 
resources  and  developed  agriculture,  fishing,  grazing,  lumbering  and 
mining  to  support  her  population,  and  is  an  industrial  leader. 

Time,  fifty  minutes. 

Object,  to  develop  intelligent  map  reading. 


Outline  for  Study  of  Holland 

Teacher,  N.  P.  Hewitt,  South  Orange 
Problem.    Why  is  Holland  well  fitted  to  support  so  large  a  population? 


1.  People 

a.  Density    of    population    com- 

pared with  that  of  New  Jer- 
sey 

b.  Characteristics  of  people 


c.  Living  conditions  —  govern- 
ment, education,  sanitary 
conditions,  savings  banks, 
etc.,  and  amount  of  emigra- 
tion 

Location 

a.  In  relation  to  Great  Powers 

b.  In  relation  to  New  World 

c.  Effect  on  progress 
Surface 

a.  Character.     Why  Netherlands 

is  a  good  name 

b.  Effect  of  glacier 

c.  Influence  of  Rhine  and  Meuse 

and  result  on  soil 

d.  Reclamation  of  lowland 

e.  Effect     of     this     struggle    on 

people 

f.  How    topic    helps    to    answer 

problem 


If  children  do  not  understand  dis- 
tribution of  people  an  explana- 
tion will  be  necessary 

This  information  may  be  obtained 
from      assigned     readings,      and 

•  enough  given  to  show  how  de- 
velopment has  depended  on  men- 
tal and  moral  qualities  of  people 

Parts  read  or  told  by  teacher  or 
children.  Lead  them  to  see  that 
progress  means  wealth  more  or 
less  equally  distributed — no  very 
poor,  ignorant  class 

May  be  developed  first,  textbook 
then  used 

Cross  section  maps  of  Holland  and 
any  other  country  compared 
(make  comparisons  wherever 
possible  as  it  helps  to  fix  points) 

On  surface  and  soil 


i85 


4.  Coast 

a.  Struggle    to    maintain    coast 

line 
h.  Dikes — structure      and      care. 

value 

c.  Harbors — number,    size 

d.  Advantages      and      disadvan- 

tages 

5.  Natural  resources 

a.  Plants 

b.  Animals 

c.  Minerals 

d.  Rivers  and  winds 

e.  Summary   of   conditions 

/.  Ways  of  overcoming  disadvan- 
tages 


Industries 

a.  (1)  What  Holland  seems  best 
fitted  to  do 

(2)  Conditions  that  make  ag- 
riculture first  in  import- 
ance 

(3)  Kinds  carried  on 


(4)  Crops    produced    (plants) 

(5)  Amount  of  pasture-lands; 
extent  of  animal  raising 
— kinds,  quality,  products 

(6)  Upon  what  success  of  ag- 
riculture is  based 

(7)  Relation  of  topic  to  prob- 
lem 

b.  Fishing 

(1)  Elxtent 

(2)  Value 

(3)  What  other  industry  this 
often  helps  to  develop 


38%  of  land  overflowed  but  for 
dikes.  Importance  to  a  country 
of  this  density 

Details  taught  under  commerce 


Pasture-lands 

Fish 

Use   production   maps 

Children  need  to  see  how  the  lack 
of  forests,  tillable  lands,  coal, 
iron  and  stone  has  been  over- 
come by  (1)  people  who  know 
how  to  turn  natural  conditions 
to  greatest  possible  advantage, 
(2)  colonies,  (3)  and  nearness 
to  countries  rich  in  those  mater- 
ials 


Surface,  soil  (top  soil  has  been 
replaced  in  many  sections  by 
effort  of  people),  climate,  land 
system 

Teach  as  much  about  climate  as  is 
necessary  to  understand  why  cer- 
tain agricultural  conditions  exist 

Reasons 

Reasons 

Note  cities  near  these  sections 
which  serve  as  centers  for  re- 
ceiving and   distributing 

1.  Absolute  cleanliness 

2.  Personal  attention  to  details 


Cheap  food — no  cost  of  production 
Show  how  commerce  developed 


1 86 


Mining 

(1)  Relation  of  surface  to  this 
industry 

(2)  Kinds   of  minerals 

(3)  How  location  affects  this 
Industry 

Manufacturing 

(1)  Amount  to  be  expected 

(2)  Needs  of  people 

(3)  Kinds  and  places  or  sec- 
tions 

(4)  How  difficulties  have  been 
overcome 

Commerce 

(1)  Place  Holland  occupies 

(2)  History  of  their  com- 
merce 

(3)  Reasons  for  growth  and 
helps  in  railroad  and 
steamship   lines 


(4)  Ports  of  exchange 


(5)  Exports  and  imports 

(6)  Bearing  that  Dutch  com- 
merce has  on  her  ability 
to  support  460  people  to 
a  square  mile 

(7)  Problems  that  Holland 
must  solve  in  the  future 

(a)  That  of  extending 
territory 

(b)  That  of  overcoming 
placid  contentment 
with  pleasant  con- 
ditions 

(c)  That  of  being  less 
prudent  and  more 
willing  to  enter  new 
fields   of   business 


Easy    transportation    to    Belgium, 
Germany,  England 

Help  children  to  see  need  of  raw 

products 


Resourcefulness  of  people  In  using 
winds  where  water  power  Is  lack- 
ing. Value  of  colonies  in  furnish- 
ing raw  materials,  also  in  taking 
surplus  of   manufactured   goods 


People,  location,  surface,  rivers 
and   canals,   colonies 

Colonies   taken   more   in   detail 

Great  value  of  Rhine  and  Meuse. 
Canals  supplement  rivers  and 
correct  their  faults.  Water 
proves  to  be  a  greater  help  than 
hindrance.  Great  merchant  ma- 
rine.    WTiy? 

Study  Amsterdam  and  Rotterdam, 
the  latter  as  a  rival  of  Hamburg 
and  Antwerp.  Advantage  of  lo- 
cation over  that  of  Amsterdam 


By  draining  Zuyder  Zee 


18; 


Summary  of  essential  points 
under  each  topic,  showing  just 
how  it  helps  to  answer  our 
problem 


After  a  country  has  been  studied 
in  this  way  a  child  should  be 
able  to  organize  his  knowledge 
in  a  complete  but  brief  summary, 
including  location,  climate,  sur- 
face, natural  resources  and  oc- 
cupations, showing  just  how  each 
helps  to  answer  the  question 


GRADER  VII 
Importance  of  Halifax  as  a  Seaport 

Teacher,   Charles   Kanter,  Belmont   Avenue   School,  Newark 

Time,  two  25  minute  periods 

Aim.    To  teach  the  importance  of  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia,  as  a  seaport. 
Groundwork  (known  to  pupils) 

1.  Industries  and  products  of  Canada 

2.  Effect  of  the  Labrador  current   on   the   eastern   coast   of  North 

America 

3.  Halifax — "The  best  natural  harbor  in  North  America" 


Method  (leading  questions) 

Question 

1.  What  does  Canada  produce  that 

the  mother  country  needs? 

2.  From   what   ports   might   these 

products  be  sent  to  England? 
(Refer  to  map  of  the  world) 

3.  What  advantages  have  Montreal 

and  Quebec  over  Halifax  as 
ports  for  the  shipment  of 
goods  to  England?  (Use  map 
of  North  America) 


Subject  matter  {to  be  drawn  from 
the  pupils  by  leading  and  subordi- 
nate questions) 

1.  Food    (wheat    and    meat)    and 

nickel    (used   in   manufacture 
of  ammunition) 

2.  Montreal,  Quebec  and  Halifax 


Montreal  and  Quebec  are 
nearer  western  Canada,  the 
source  of  wheat  and  meat 
(Saskatchewan,  Alberta,  Man- 
itoba) and  nearer  to  northern 
Quebec,  the  source  of  nickel. 
This  makes  a  shorter  rail  trip 
to  the  port  and  a  longer  water 
trip  from  the  port  to  England. 
and,  of  course,  it  means  a 
cheaper  trip  than  by  rail  to 
Halifax  and  thence,  by  boat, 
to  England 


i88 


4.  What    advantage    has    Halifax 
over  Montreal  and   Quebec? 


5.  What  disadvantages  has  the 
port  of  Halifax?  (How  do 
the  Canadians  lessen  the  effect 
of  this  disadvantage?) 


a.  Its  harbor  is  the  "best 
natural  harbor  In  North 
America" 

b.  It  is  situated  near  the  coal 
fields  of  eastern  Canada,  mak- 
ing Halifax  the  chief  coaling 
station  on  the  continent  of 
North  America  for  the  United 
Kingdom 

c.  Its  large,  deep  harbor  makes 
it  accessible  for  steamers 
larger  than  those  able  to 
ascend  the  St.  Lawrence  to 
Montreal  and  Quebec 

The  effect  of  the  Labrador  cur- 
rent is  such  that  for  a  few 
weeKS  in  winter  the  harbor 
is  frozen  over.  (The  use  of 
ice-breaking  boats  enables 
the  port  to  be  kept  open 
almost  the  whole  year  round) 


(End  of  first  lesson — 25  minutes) 


6.  What     new     plan     has     Great 

Britain  made  to  protect  her 
merchantmen  from  German 
submarines? 

7.  Since     the     United     States     is 

oflBcially  still  neutral,  what 
will  we  do  when  these  armed 
merchantmen  wish  to  enter 
OUT  harbors? 

8.  a.  What  does  England  buy  from 

the  United  States? 
b.  What  did  she  buy  chiefly  last 
year?  (Refer  to  exports  of 
United  States  in  World  Al- 
manac and  to  clippings  of 
newspapers  shown.)  Our  ex- 
ports to  England  in  1916 — 
especially  in  food  and  ammu- 
nition 

9.  How    will    England    get    these 

things  from  the  United  States 
when  her  armed  ships  will 
be  excluded  from  our  ports? 


6.  The   British  are   going  to   arm 

their  merchantmen  with  can- 
nons on  the  prow  and  stern 
to  be  used  to  repel  subma- 
rine attacks 

7.  According  to  international  law, 

we  are  bound  to  exclude 
armed  ships  of  either  bellig- 
erent 

8.  England  bought  from  the  United 

States  last  year  millions  of 
dollars  worth  of  ammunition 
— she  does  not  manufacture 
enough  for  her  needs;  and  of 
food — England,  not  being  an 
agricultural  country,  has  very 
little  except  that  obtained  by 
import 

9.  The    goods    will    probably    be 

sent  from  the  United  States 
to  Halifax,  and  there  the 
armed  merchantmen  will  take 
their  cargo  on  board 


1 89 

10.  What    advantage    has    Halifax      lO.  The     route     from     Halifax     Is 

over    New    York    City    as    a  shorter  than  from  New  York 

port  of  shipment  to  England?  city    (Halifax    is    almost   in 

the    same    latitude    as    Eng- 
land) 

11.  Application — write  a  few  para- 

graphs (10  minutes)  on: 
"Why  Halifax  is  of  more  im- 
portance to  England  as  a 
seaport  than  Newark" 

(End  of  second  lesson — 25  minutes) 

Note.  No  attempt  is  made  to  prophesy  the  turn  the  lesson  may  take, 
therefore  no  subordinate  questions  are  suggested.  The  teacher's  in- 
genuity will  in  itself  be  the  basis  for  drawing  from  the  children  the 
desired  subject  matter. 

Manufacturing:  in  Great  Britain 

Teacher,  Florence  Sherry,  R.  D.   Wood  School,  Millville 

Problem.  Why  is  manufacturing  so  profitable  an  occupation  in  Great 
Britain? 

(This  problem  was  decided  upon  by  pupils  and  teacher  as  a  topic  for 
study) 

(Have  the  pupils  study  the  lesson  with  the  idea  of  answering  the 
problem,  and  suggest  that  they  bring  to  class  a  list  of  topics  of  which 
a  further  knowledge  would  be  helpful  in  solving  the  problem.) 

First  unit  of  work — two  or  three  days 

The  following  questions  and  directions  indicate  approach  and  values 
stressed. 

On  the  map  locate  the  British  Isles  with  regard  to  their  direction  from 
Europe. 

What  country  on  the  mainland  of  Europe  is  nearest  the  British  Isles? 
How  great  is  the  distance  between  them? 

On  the  map  locate  the  British  Isles  with  regard  to  their  direction 
from  us. 

Trace  the  route  that  we  would  take  in  going  there,  pointing  out  prob- 
able ports  of  entry. 

How  long  is  the  journey  in  miles  and  how  long  would  it  take  us  to 
reach  there? 

Point  out  on  the  map  the  boundaries  of  the  British  Isles. 

Describe  the  surface  of  the  British  Isles. 

Describe  the  climate  of  the  British  Isles  with  regard  to  zone,  wind- 
belt,  and  rainfall. 

Point  out  on  the  map  the  beds  of  mineral  deposits. 

Point  out  on  the  map  the  leading  seaports  of  the  British  Isles. 


190 

Point  out  on  the  map  the  important  manufacturing  cities,  stating  the 

leading  kind  of  manufacturing  carried  on  in  each. 
After  having  studied  the  lesson  with  this  problem  in  mind  what  topic 
can  you   suggest  for  our  further  study  which  will  be  helpful  in 
the  solution  of  our  problem? 
(Have  a  list  of  the  topics  given  placed  on  the  board.     Some  topics 
such  as  "the  mineral  wealth,"  "the  wool  from  the  sheep,"  "the  many 
people,"    the    children    will    suggest    themselves.      Others    the    teacher 
should  suggest.) 

Second  unit  of  work — ^three  or  four  days 

In  assigning  the  second  unit  of  work  divide  the  class  into  five  groups. 
Assign  to  each  group  a  topic  to  work  on  and  appoint  a  chairman  for 
each  group,  letting  him  apportion  the  work  among  the  members  of 
his  group.  It  will  no  doubt  be  necessary  for  the  various  groups  to 
hold  separate  meetings  and  the  teacher  will  have  to  suggest  important 
points  of  study  for  each  group. 

Suggestions  for  Group  I 

Agriculture  has  not  been  an  important  occupation 

1.  Size  of  the  islands 

2.  Number  of  people 

3.  Density  of  the  population 

4.  Effect  of  the  climate  and  surface 

5.  Products  can  be  raised  more  cheaply  elsewhere 

6.  Comparison  of  English  and  American  agricultural  methods 

Suggestions  for  Group  II 

Manufacturing  is  easily  carried  on 

1.  Mineral  wealth 

2.  Water  power 

3.  Production  of  wool 

4.  Ease  in  obtaining  raw  materials 

5.  Advantage  in  having  vast  population 

6.  Leading  centers  for  textile  industries,  for  iron  and  steel  industries 

Suggestions  for  Group  III 

Great  Britan  has  a  great  colonial  empire 

1.  Find  out  all  you  can  about  Sir  Francis  Drake  and  other  English 

explorers 

2.  Influence  of  the  sea  on  the  British  people 

3.  Reasons  for  Great  Britain's  colonial  ambitions 

4.  Extent  of  Great  Britain's  colonies 

5.  How  were  the  colonies  acquired? 

6.  Which  of  them  could  she  least  afford  to  lose? 

7.  Which  could  she  lose  with  the  least  concern? 

8.  Make  a  list  of  the  chief  products  of  Great  Britain's  colonies 

9.  Advantages  to  the  colonies  to  trade  with  Great  Britain  rather  than 

elsewhere 


191 

Suggestions  for  Group  IV 
Great  Britain  is  the  foremost  commercial  power 

1.  Give  a  brief  account  of  how  Great  Britain  acquired   commercial 

supremacy,  including  the  defeat  of  the  Armada  and  the  Trade 
and  Navigation  Laws 

2.  Great  Britain's  merchant  marine  compared  with  other  countries 

3.  Her  position  in  the  center  of  the  world 

4.  Her  good  natural  harbors 

5.  Her  shipbuilding  materials 

6.  Her  need  of  a  large  merchant  marine 

Suggestions  for  Group  V 
Great  Britain  is  one  of  the  wealthiest  nations  of  the  world 

1.  Comparison  of  total  wealth  with  that  of  other  great  nations 

2.  Comparison  of  wealth  per  capita  with  that  of  other  great  nations 

Third  unit  of  work — two  or  three  days 

Have  each  group  give  its  report  as  a  part  of  regular  recitation. 
These  reports  should  be  given  in  as  much  detail  as  possible,  following 
the  working  out  of  the  suggestions  given  to  each  group  by  the  teacher. 
Encourage  the  children  of  one  group  to  question  those  of  the  other 
groups  and  make  them  prove  statements  where  necessary. 

Appoint  one  child  in  the  class  as  secretary  but  let  the  important  facts 
of  the  reports  made  by  each  group  be  placed  on  the  board.  Have  pupils 
suggest  a  heading  for  the  work,  and  as  a  class  project  make  outlines 
in  keeping  with  the  principles  shown  in  the  following: 

I.  Manufacturing  can  be  carried  on  very  easily  and  with  great  profit  in 
Great  Britain 

1.  Great  Britain  is  one  of  the  greatest  coal  producing  countries  of 

the  world 

2.  Abundant  iron  ore  is  found  near  the  coal  fields 

3.  Great  water  power  has  been  developed 

4.  Abundance  of  tin  in  Great  Britair. 

5.  Great   Britain   has    a   climate   suited   for   raising    sheep,   leading 

to  the  production  of  wool 

6.  Raw  materials  for  manufacturing  are  easily  obtained  from  other 

places 

a.  United  States  sends  cotton  and  mineral  oils 

h.  Canada  sends  wood  products  and  silver 

c.  Australia  and  New  Zealand  supply  wool,  hides,  and  gold 

d.  India  supplies  cotton,  jute,  hides,  and  skins 

e.  Egypt  supplies  cotton 

/.  British  Guiana  supplies  timber,  gold,  and  diamonds 

g.  Union   of   South   Africa   supplies    gold,   diamonds,   wool   and 

mohair,  ostrich  feathers,  hides  and  skins 
h.  British   colonies   in   tropical   Africa   supply   palm   oil.   gums. 

rubber,  ebony,  ivory,  and  hides 
i.  Sweden  and  Spain  supply  iron  ore 


192 

Several  days  of  wide-awake  geography  study  and  recitation  work  was      * 
carried  on  in  the  manner  indicated  by  this  plan.     So  many  direct  appli-      ,1 
cations   were   made   of  the   knowledge   gained   through  a   study   of  this 
single  large  problem  that  in  the  end  the  pupils  knew  enough  about  the 
geography  of  Great  Britain  for  average  seventh  grade  pupils. 


Switzerland 

Teacher,  Gertrude  Roberts,  Bradley  School,  Asbury  Park 

I.     Switzerland's  location  (use  map) 

A.  General — southwestern   part  of  EnTope;     surrounded   by   what 

countries? 

B.  Latitude  and  longitude — compare  with  New  Jersey 

C.  Size — compare  with  New  Jersey 

D.  Advantages   and   disadvantages   of  location 

1.  Center  of  trade  routes;    Swiss  dependent  upon  others  for 

carrying  on  their  commerce 

2.  Bordered  by  Germany,  France,  Italy,   and  Austria — leads 

to  a  mixture  of  people 

a.  Effect  upon  their  languges,  customs  and  industries 
■  b.  Need  for  preparedness 

1)  To  repel  invasion 

2)  To  insure  respect  of  border  nations 
c.  Effect  on  people 

1)  Develops  resourcefulness 

2)  Increases  patriotism 
II.    Physical  features   (use  map) 

A.  Mountains,  character  of — (pictures  used) 

1.  Attract  tourists 

2.  Necessitate  good  roads 

3.  Effect  of  such  mountains  upon  the  people 

a.  Increase  spirit  of  industry 

b.  Lead  to  outdoor  life 

B.  Glaciers,  rivers  and  waterfalls — water  power  for  manufacturing 

C.  Lakes — used  as  reservoirs 

D.  Mountain-passes,  such  as   St.  Bernard,   St.  Gothard 

Value  of  passes 
III.     Climate  (map  work) 

A.  Temperature,  affected  by: 

1.  Altitude 

2.  Latitude 

B.  Rainfall — effect  of  mountains  upon  prevailing  westerlies  and 

winds  from  the  Mediterranean  Sea 
IV.     Industries 

A.  Agriculture — products 

B.  Lumbering 

C.  Manufacturing — electricity 


193 

D.  Commerce 

1.  Raw  products 

2.  Distribution  of  manufactured  articles 

3.  Means  of  distribution 

a.  Best  roads  in  the  world 

b.  Railways.     Difficulties  overcome  by 

1)  Tunnelling,  as  the  St.  Gothard  Railway 

2)  Engineering  skill  of  the  people 
V.    Government 

A.  Republic 

1.  President  and  Federal  Council 

2.  Compare  with  United  States 

a.  People  more  democratic 

b.  Cantons   (22)   instead  of  states 
VI.     Education 

A.  Compulsory  education 

B.  Desire  for  education 
VII.     Cities  (use  map) 

Locate  and  give  importance  of  Zurich,  Basel,  Geneva,  Berne 

In  teaching  the  geography  of  Switzerland  by  means  of  the  preceding 
outline,  topics  I,  II  and  III  were  studied  by  the  class  with  the  help  of 
the  teacher.  The  pupils  had  their  books  opened  to  the  map  of  Switzer- 
land.    The  large  map  of  Europe  which  hung  on  the  wall  was  also  used. 

The  pupils  first  determined  the  location  of  Switzerland.  They  com- 
pared Switzerland's  location  with  that  of  New  Jersey;  those  who  did 
not  remember  hunted  up  New  Jersey's  location  by  turning  to  the  map 
of  the  United  States.  The  area  was  found  by  referring  to  the  back  of 
the  book. 

Topic  II  was  studied  by  using  the  physical  map  and  pictures.  The 
different  points  were  brought  out  by  suggestions  and  questions  by  the 
children  and  teacher. 

The  industries  v;ere  suggested,  but  topics  IV,  V,  VI  and  VII  were 
assigned  for  special  reports. 

In  each  case  the  new  lesson  was  begun  by  a  short  review  of  the  fact« 
studied  the  previous  lesson.  The  assigned  lesson  was  then  taken  up 
and  the  points  in  the  outline  were  particularly  stressed.  Cities  were 
located  on  the  wall  map.  A  map  was  also  made  by  the  class  showing 
the  boundaries,  physical  features  and  cities. 

Some  of  the  children  brought  in  articles  that  had  been  made  by  tha 
Swiss,  and  some  were  able  to  tell  interesting  facts  about  Switzerland 
which  they  had  learned  from  books,  pictures  and  conversation  with  other 
people. 


13   GEOG 


194 


One  Device  for  Teaching  Certain  Pliases  of  the 
Geography  of  New  Jersey 

Teacher,  Ethel  Rake,  Chatham 

There  has  been  a  growing  tendency  in  recent  years  toward  making 
a  more  vital  connection  between  school  work  and  actual  life  interests 
and  activities.  The  teaching  of  geography  is  real  only  in  so  far  as  it 
deals  with  the  interests  of  the  individual. 

The  seventh  grade  pupils  in  Chatham  began  the  study  of  the  geography 
of  New  Jersey  with  the  home  community.  Means  of  communication  Muth 
nearby  towns  and  cities  were  traced.  By  use  of  railroad  time-tables, 
maps  and  tourists'  guide  books,  interest  was  broadened  until  all  the 
important  towns  and  cities  of  the  state  were  reached. 

Later,  letters  were  written  by  the  pupils  to  a  few  of  the  boards  of 
trade  in  different  sections  of  the  state,  asking  for  information  con- 
cerning the  city,  town  or  community.  Nearly  every  board  of  trade  re- 
sponded and  many  interesting  circulars  and  booklets  were  received. 

Each  group  of  pupils  was  asked  to  report  on  the  information  which 
it  had  received,  selecting  only  what  was  considered  of  value  to  the  class. 

Topics  of  interest  were  freely  discussed.  Special  attention  was  directed 
to  questions  of  health  (as  water  supply,  drainage,  sewerage)  and  civic 
and  municipal  affairs.  The  class  was  soon  able  to  weed  out  material 
that  was  purely  advertisement  and  treat  it  as  such.  Real  underlying 
reasons  for  a  selection  of  certain  towns  for  homes  were  given  con- 
siderable attention. 

Booklets  were  made  by  all  the  members  of  the  class.  Each  drew  an 
original  cover  design.  The  aim  was  to  have  the  work  done  independently 
of  the  teacher,  as  far  as  possible.  The  written  accounts  were  exchanged 
among  the  pupils  for  criticism.  Each  understood  that  he  was  responsible 
for  the  very  best  booklet  that  he  could  make  but  that  he  might  do  it  in 
his  own  way  and  time. 

All  the  other  subjects  were  correlated,  especially  history  and  civics. 
Each  town  or  city  has  some  historical  interest  and  no  circular  was 
received  which  did  not  mention  some  phase  of  municipal  government. 

The  poorest  reader  in  the  class  read  well  because  he  wanted  to  hold 
the  attention  of  all. 

The  letters  to  the  boards  of  trade  were  the  best  the  pupils  could 
write,  for  there  was  a  definite  motive. 

The  fact  that  pupils  were  asked  to  give  only  the  most  important  of 
the  information  received  helped  to  develop  an  ability  of  selection. 
They  began  to  understand  more  clearly  that  there  are  facts  to  keep  and 
facts  to  throw  aside  on  any  printed  page. 

To  know  directly  about  other  towns  broadened  the  point  of  view, 
developed  greater  interest  in  trade  centers  and  showed  the  necessity  for 
good  means  of  communication. 

Each  day  a  group  of  pupils  met  together  to  discuss  a  topic  of  general 
interest. 


195 

This  is  simply  one  device  for  bringing  the  geography  of  New  Jersey 
within  the  interests  of  each  pupil. 


Flax 

Teacher,  Helen  G.   Williams,  Richmond  Avenue  School,  Atlantic  City 

I.     Is  the  growing  of  flax  a  recent  industry? 

1.  Egyptian   mummies   wrapped   in   cloths   of   flax   fiber.     In   the 

old    tombs    along    the    Nile   have   been   found    paintings   of 
many  men,  women  and  children  gathering  flax 

2.  Also  mentioned  in  the  Bible 
11.     Conditions  of  growth 

1.  Damp,  moderately  cool  climate.    Why? 

2.  Fertile  soil,  well  prepared.    Why? 
III.     Culture 

1.  Seed  planted  in  the  spring.    Why  not  in  the  fall  as  we  some- 

times do  with  wheat? 

2.  Height  of  plant  about  three  feet.     Delicate  blue  flower 

3.  Great  care  is  exercised  in  weeding,  more  so  than  the  weeding 

of  corn.    Why? 

4.  Purpose  of  flax  raising 

a.  For  seed 

b.  For  fiber 
IV.     Harvest 

1.  If    raised    for    fiber,    the    flax    is    harvested    before    the    seed 

matures.    Why  is  this  done? 

2.  Method— By  hand  or  machinery,  the  former  preferable.    Why? 
V.     Preparation  for  market 

1.  Retted 

a.  Laid  on  damp  ground  or  in  shallow  streams  as  in  Belgium 

b.  Chemical  process — not  very  successful 

c.  Purpose,  to  decay  woody  tissue 

2.  Dried 

3.  Broken  by  hand  or  machinery 

4.  Scutched,  to  separate  fiber.     Color  of  fiber,  gray  or  yellowish 

5.  Spun  into  thread 

a.  Washed 

b.  Bleached.    How  did  our  grandmothers  bleach  their  linen? 

VI.    Value  and  uses 

1.  Next  to  cotton  most  important  textile  fiber 

2.  Uses 

a.  Linen  cloth 

b.  Linen  lace 

c.  Linen  paper 

d.  Linen  thread 

e.  Linseed  oil,  oil-cake 


196 


VII.    Centers  of  flax  raising 

Belgium — best  quality 

Central  Russia — four-fifths  world's  supply 

Holland 

France 

Ireland 

Italy 

Canada 

United  States — for  seed  only 

The  United  States  imports  annually  more  than  $3,000,000 
of  flax  fiber  and  more  than  $20,000,000  of  linen  goods 

What  cities  are  especially  noted  as  centers  of  linen  manu- 
facture? 

HISTORY 

GRADE    V 

Life  of  William  Penn 

Teacher,  Vera  M.   Telfer,  Asbury  Park 
Purpose  of  teacher 

1.  To  have  children  picture  Penn  as  a  man  who  really  lived 

2.  To  have  them  feel  that  Penn  founded  Pennsylvania  because  he 

saw  that  the  persecuted  Quakers  needed  a  new  home 

3.  To  idealize  those  traits  of  character  which  made  Penn  a  leader 

4.  To  make  the  class  appreciate  what  Penn  did 
Purpose  of  pupil.    To  make  Penn's  life  a  problem  for  study  by 

1.  Learning  the  story  of  one  of  our  great  forefathers 

2.  Finding  out  who  the  Quakers  were 

3.  Seeing  how  the  worthy  actions  of  this  leader  affected  our  country 

Assignment 

Textbooks  in  history  are  usually  too  diflBcult  for  the  average  fifth 
grade  child  to  comprehend. 

Teacher  should  tell  briefly  the  story  of  Penn's  life,  giving  only  enough 
to  arouse  the  children  to  read  their  textbooks  for  more  information. 
By  questioning,  the  teacher  will  help  the  pupils  to  formulate  their  prob- 
lems for  study.  In  this  way  the  teacher  is  giving  the  child  an  oppor- 
tunity to  develop  good  judgment  by  helping  him  to  select  the  important 
factors,  and  the  child  sees  a  purpose  for  his  thinking.  This  might  be 
done  in  the  following  way: 

Show  a  picture  of  William  Penn  to  the  class  and  focus  the  attention 
of  the  children  on  his  dress.  The  pupils  will  ask  questions,  and  with 
the  help  of  the  teacher  the  following  study  problems  might  be  written 
on  the  blackboard: 

1.  Why  does  he  wear  that  kind  of  a  hat? 

2.  Who  were  the  Quakers? 


197 

3.  Why  did  they  want  to  come  to  America? 

4.  Who  helped  them  and  how? 

5.  Did  Penn  prove  himself  a  good  Christian  man:     (1)   In  his  deal- 

ings with  the  Indians?     (2)  In  his  government  of  the  settlement? 

6.  Would  you  rather  have  lived  in  Penn's  colony  than  in  any  of  the 

others?    Why? 

7.  Do  you  think  Philadelphia  is  properly  named?     Why  did  it  grow 

so  rapidly? 
Assign  to  several  pupils  extra  reading  to  be  done  from  reference  books. 
During  the  recitation  let  the  children  tell  the  class  what  they  have  read. 

Recitation 

Using  the  study  problems  already  made,  have  the  children  tell  the 
story.  Allow  the  child  to  answer  the  problem  in  his  own  way,  and  then 
bring  out  by  suggestion  and  class  discussion  such  points  as  need  further 
attention. 

As  a  summary  have  the  children  formulate  two  or  three  questions 
about  William  Penn,  the  discussion  of  which  will  distinguish  Penn  from 
any  other  settler. 

Written  Work 

This  story  is  now  ready  to  be  used  as  a  written  EJnglish  lesson 

Suggestions   for  correlated   liand-work 

1.  Make  a  booklet  to  contain  written  English  work  on  this  subject, 
illustrated  with  cuttings  and  drawings. 

2.  Have  the  class  make  a  large  cut  paper  poster,  representing  the 
signing  of  the  treaty  in  Penn's  Woods  near  the  Delaware  River. 

3.  Make  a  sand-table  representation  of  the  signing  of  the  treaty. 
Quakers  and  Indians  may  be  made  of  clay,  clothes-pins  or  com  cobs 
appropriately  dressed.  Twigs  may  be  used  for  the  woods  and  blue 
paper  covered  with  glass  for  the  Delaware  River. 

Geography 

Locate  Philadelphia  on  the  map  of  the  United  States.  Have  a  pupil 
make  a  blackboard  sketch  of  Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey  and  parts  of  the 
adjoining  states.  Indicate  the  Delaware  River,  Philadelphia,  Trenton 
and  your  home  town  in  New  Jersey.  Any  child  who  has  been  In  the 
woods  of  New  Jersey  can  picture  the  conditions  which  surrounded  Penn 
and  his  colonists. 

If  some  member  of  the  class  has  been  in  Philadelphia  or  In  some 
other  part  of  Pennsylvania,  let  him  tell  the  other  children  about  It. 

Allow  some  bright  pupil  to  report  upon  and  locate  eariy  settlements 
in  New  Jersey  by  Penn's  followers. 


198 


Settlement  of  Newark 

Teacher,   Elisabeth   M.    Serven,   South   Eighth   Street  School,   Newark 

General  purpose.     To  inspire  patriotism  and  love  for  our  city  through 
a  better  knowledge  of  its  origin  and  development. 

Special  purpose.    To  teach  the  history  of  the  settlement  of  Newark 
Children's  aim.     To  learn  about  the  beginning  of  their  own  city. 


Subject  Matter 

Religious  freedom  the  reason  for 
the  settlement  of  many  of  the 
early  colonies 

Hooker's  settlement  in  Connecti- 
cut 

Settlement  in  New  Haven  after 
the  Pequot  Indians  were  sub- 
dued 

Location  on  the  Sound  good  for 
development  and  trade 

Trouble  with  Charles  II  over  regi- 
cides. Punishment  for  hiding 
these  men  who  fled  to  America 

New  Haven  merged  with  the  Con- 
necticut Colony 
The  two   factions   created  through 
the   opposition    of    some   to   this 
merging 
The  separation  of  the  two  factions 
Beauties  of  New  Jersey  were  being 

talked  about 
Robert   Treat's    exploration 
Negotiations      entered     into     with 
Stuyvesant,    then    with    Cartaret 
when  New  Jersey  came  into  the 
hands  of  the  English 
Site  on  Passaic  River  chosen 
The     journey     from     New    Haven. 
The  landing.     Meeting  with  the 
Indians.     Indians  claim  the  land. 
Treat  acknowledges  their  claim. 
Pays    $700    for    land.      This    in- 
cluded whole  of  Essex  County- 


Method 

Why  were  most  of  the  early  col- 
onies settled? 

What  religious  leaders  made  set- 
tlements where  true  religious 
freedom    prevailed? 

What  people  troubled  the  settle- 
ments in  Connecticut? 

After  the  Indians  were  subdued 
where  was  a  settlement  made? 
Why? 

How  would  Charles  II  feel  about 
men  who  had  killed  his  father? 
How  would  he  feel  toward  a  col- 
ony who  would  shelter  them? 

Would  high-spirited  men  like  this 
subordinate  position  given  to 
their  colony? 

What  could  they  do?  (Make  a 
settlement    for    themselves) 

What  would  they  look  for?  (Good 
climate,  fertile  soil,  water  high- 
way) 

After  they  had  chosen  a  place,  of 
whom  would  they  have  to  ask 
permission  to  settle?  (Governor 
of  country) 

Children  will  be  able  to  tell  many 
reasons  for  the  selection  of  this 
site 

Who  would  the  colonists  be  likely 
to  find  here? 

What  would  the  Indians  think 
about  the   land? 

What  would  be  the  honest  thing  to 
do? 


199 

Compare  with  settlement  of  colonies  in  Connecticut. 

Treat's  fair  treatment  of  the  Indians  in  buying  the  land  was  a  good 
beginning  upon  which  to  build  a  colony.  (A  fuller  generalization  will 
follow  a  series  of  lessons  on  the  growth  and  development  of  Newark.) 


GRADE   VII 
The  Pupil  and  SeIf=ReIiance 

Teacher,  Lilian  C.  Webster,  Rutherford 

We  all  know  that  one  learns  to  do  by  doing.  How  to  apply  this 
truth  advantageously  in  the  schoolroom  is  the  problem  for  the  teacher 
to  solve.  The  aim  should  be  to  make  pupils  self-reliant  as  rapidly  as 
possible  by  a  process  which  should  make  them  at  first  realize  their  task, 
and  then,  slowly  but  surely,  willing  to  assume  its  responsibilities. 

For  several  years  I  have  used  this  method  in  the  teaching  of  history 
in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades.  When  the  classes  first  came  to  me 
at  the  beginning  of  the  seventh  year,  I  found  that  many  pupils  did 
not  possess  initiative.  They  were  willing  to  be  instructed  but  not  will- 
ing to  take  any  part  of  the  work  as  theirs.  In  order  to  help  them  we 
began  the  lesson  by  having  paragraphs  read  aloud  by  different  pupils. 
Then  the  help  of  the  class  was  asked  to  form  questions  which  would 
be  sensible  and  which  would  bring  out  the  most  important  parts  of 
the  paragraphs.  At  first  the  questions  were  neither  thoughtful  nor 
stimulating.  Criticism  being  asked  for,  interest  was  aroused  and  better 
questions  followed,  a  few  of  which  were  written  on  the  board.  These 
questions  were  answered  and  commented  upon.  This  continued  through 
the  lesson  assigned. 

In  assigning  the  lesson,  as  part  of  the  pupils'  task  I  have  required  from 
each  pupil  at  least  five  questions  dealing  directly  with  the  lesson.  Pupils 
have  come  prepared  to  answer  their  written  questions,  and  in  no  case 
have  they  been  allowed  to  recite  in  the  words  of  the  book. 

I  do  not  hold  pupils  to  any  particular  book.  If,  however,  they  are 
asked  on  what  authority  they  make  a  certain  statement,  they  are  re- 
quired to  name  the  author  and  produce  the  book.  Though  a  school's 
collection  of  histories  may  be  quite  extensive,  the  pupils  soon  become 
very  fiimiliar  with  the  different  authors. 

To  maintain  interest,  I  change  recitation  methods  frequently.  One 
day  certain  pupils  are  sent  to  the  board,  topics  are  assigned  them,  and 
they  are  told  to  write.  Then  two  children  are  called  upon  to  question 
each  other.  All  eyes  are  fixed  expectantly  upon  the  chosen  two.  The 
moment  either  hesitates,  hands  are  raised,  and  the  questioner  calls  upon 
any  one  he  chooses  to  answer.  If  the  answer  is  correct,  the  one  answer- 
ing becomes  the  questioner.  This  is  great  sport,  and  as  the  pupils  at 
the  board  finish  their  writing,  they  are  always  eager  to  join  the  game. 
When  the  majority  of  those  at  the  board  have  finished,  I  close  the  quiz, 
as  we  call  it,  and  the  attention  of  the  class  is  turned  to  the  written 
work.     One  pupil  reads  his  work,  then  faces  the  class.    If  they  have  any 


200 

questions  to  ask  on  the  topic  he  has  written,  or  if  any  part  of  his  work 
is  vague  or  incorrect,  his  critics  stand  and  he  calls  each  one  by  name 
in  turn.  If  he  cannot  answer  the  question  or  make  clear  any  doubtful 
point,  the  critic  either  answers  or  explains.  This  exercise  is  repeated  to 
cover  the  work  on  the  board. 

If  necessary,  I  call  attention  to  the  main  points  of  the  lesson,  but 
very  seldom  have  I  found  that  they  have  been  overlooked.  It  is  a  whole- 
some plan  to  repeat  often  a  particularly  good  question,  emphasizing  its 
value. 

Often  I  divide  the  class  as  in  a  spelling  match,  allowing  the  pupils  to 
question  each  other  back  and  forth.  The  captains  are  free  to  challenge 
an  ambiguous  question,  and  many  a  lively,  entertaining  and  instructive 
lesson  has  been  conducted  in  this  way. 

Frequently,  I  send  a  certain  number  of  pupils  to  the  board  to  write 
questions.  Others  are  sent  to  write  the  answers.  Corrections  and  criti- 
cisms follow  and,  if  the  class  is  not  too  large,  every  pupil  asks  and 
answers  at  least  one  question  during  the  recitation. 

At  other  times  a  pupil  stands  in  front  of  the  class  and  asks  a  question, 
a  record  is  kept  of  how  many  fail  to  answer,  and  the  number  is  placed 
on  the  board.  The  one  answering  correctly  then  asks  a  question,  the 
other  returning  to  his  seat. 

These  are  a  few  of  the  many  ways  of  developing  initiative. 

Friday  is  review  day.  The  value  of  review  is  not  to  be  overlooked. 
Constant  drill  and  review  in  school  work  cannot  be  over-estimated. 
"Repititio  mater  studionim,"  said  the  Jesuits,  and  they  were  right.  Review 
is  the  mother  of  all  education. 

As  the  year  advances,  the  work  is  made  more  difficult.  For  instance, 
the  pupil  who  is  reciting  must  be  able  to  sketch  the  geographical  out- 
lines of  his  history  lesson.  In  the  eighth  grade,  besides  the  kind  of 
recitation  required  in  the  seventh  grade,  I  required  the  pupils  to  prepare 
an  outline. 

Biographies  and  original  plays  have  been  introduced  to  vary  the 
procedure.  We  have  often  staged  a  particularly  good  play;  for  instance, 
Spanish  discoverers  and  explorers,  telling  of  their  deeds  before  the  Court 
of  Spain;  First  Colonial  Assembly;  Landing  of  the  Pilgrims;  Boston 
Tea  Party,  and  many  others.  I  have  found  that  this  has  stimulated  much 
interest. 

This  method  has  been  productive  of  excellent  results  and  there  has 
been  such  wonderful  development  in  the  power  of  reasoning  and  in 
self-expression  that  I  feel  it  may  be  suggestive,  at  least,  of  the  great 
possibilities  which  class  instruction  offers  of  developing  self-reliance 
in  pupils. 

Making:  a  Nation 

Teacher,  Mary  O.  Hoffmire,  South  Orange 

I  plan  to  have  the  pupils  make  their  class  organization  at  the  time 
when  they  are  studying  the  Constitution.  This  helps  them  to  understand 
organization,   committee,   convention,   constitution,   amendment,   compro- 


20I 

mise,  nomination,  majority,  executive  officers,  etc.  With  the  lesson  in 
mind  it  is  easy  to  necessitate  the  use  of  these  and  other  important  terms 
In  such  organization 

Material 

A  good  textbook  in  the  hands  of  the  children  and  plenty  of 
good  reference  books  at  their  disposal.  The  children  are  en- 
couraged to  read  from  helps  at  home  and  to  bring  illustrative  mater- 
ial in  line  of  pictures,  anecdotes,  etc.,  to  class.  One  child  in  our  class 
has  visited  Washington  and  has  offered  to  bring  pictures  taken  by 
himself,  throw  them  on  the  screen  by  means  of  the  projectoscope  and 
tell  the  boys  and  girls  about  his  visit.  A  trip  to  Washington,  if  possible, 
would  be  ideal. 

Assignment 

(For  two  or  three  lessons  according  to  ability  of  children  and  time) 

1.  Why  was  a  new  organization  needed? 

2.  What  material  was  there  of  which  to  make  it? 

3.  What   differences   of   opinion   concerning  the   kind   of   organization 

arose  at  once? 

4.  Which  colonies  by  their  own  forms  of  local  government,  enthusiasm 

or  otherwise  helped  greatly? 

5.  Can  you  justify  the  attitude  of  your  own  state  regarding  the  organi- 

zation? 

Recitation 

Our  method  of  recitation  varies.  Sometimes  we  put  the  lesson  into 
the  hands  of  a  pupil  for  development.  Sometimes  we  select  from  such 
a  question  as  number  three  of  the  assignment  a  subject  for  class  debate, 
as  "More  power  should  have  been  given  the  states,"  "Slavery  should 
have  been  forbidden  at  the  outset,"  and  we  secure  excellent  results 
by  this  method.  The  results  of  too  strong  central  government  is  easily 
Illustrated  in  the  current  history  of  China  and  Russia. 

Again  we  assign  topics  upon  which  the  children  write  paragraphs  on 
the  blackboard.  Frequently  we  arrange  the  subject  matter  in  the  form 
of  an  outline  and  discuss  such  outline  together.  Such  outline  we  use  at 
times  as  a  summary  of  the  lesson,  as: 

Forming  a  Nation 
I.    Need  of  such  formation  because  of  weakness  of  the  Confederation 

A.  Defects 

1.  No  president 

2.  No  supreme  judge 

3.  No  senate 

B.  Lack  of  power  delegated  Congress 

1.  To  raise  money 

2.  To  regulate  commerce 

3.  To  make  currency  uniform 

4.  To  enforce  treaties 

14  GEOG 


202 

n.     Materials  to  be  used 

A.  Ideas  of  individual  states 

1.  Legislative  representative  body  of  Virginia 

2.  Constitution  of  Connecticut 

3.  Ideas  of  New  Jersey 

B.  Men  with  opinions  differing  as  to 

1.  Strong  central  power 

2.  States'  rights 

3.  Slavery 

4.  Apportionment  of  representation 

C.  Leaders 

1.  Washington,  "The  Father  of  his  Country" 

2.  Madison,  "The  Father  of  the  Constitution" 

3.  Franklin,   "The   Sage   of  the  Constitutional   Convention" 

Discovery  and  Trade 

Teacher,  Marie  B.  Miller,  Massachusetts  Avenue  School,  Atlantic  City 

An  outline  designed  to  cover  four  lessons.  Material  may  be  drawn 
from  textbook  and  supplementary  books.  Some  references  were  assigned 
for  special  report;  others  were  looked  up  during  the  recitation  period 
and  read. 

Problem.  How  did  trade  conditions  in  Europe  lead  to  the  discovery 
©f  America? 

I.  Trade  between  Eastern  Asia  and  Southern 
Europe  was  most  important  commercial 
factor  of  15th  century 

A.  Origin  of  trade 
Review  facts  of  Cru-  1.  Crusades 

» a  d  e  r  s,    emphasizing  a.  Crusaders     learned     of     valuable 

•ommercial  possibilities  products  of  East,  jewels,  silks,  spices 

from  study  of  products  ^    Crusaders      acquired      taste     for 

of      East      and      West  spices  of  East  and  wished  to  have 

which     might     be     ex-  them    for    use    at    home       (Spices 

changed  necessary  for  preserving  food,   ow- 

ing to  lack  of  means   of  refrigera- 
tion) 

B.  Trade  routes 
1.  Northern 

Have  pupils  work  out  a.  Genoa,    Mediterranean    Sea,    Con- 

from  map  the  possible  stantinople,   Black   Sea,   caravan   to 

ways  of  reaching  Indies  Caspian   Sea,  caravan  to  India 

Have  them   tell   why  2.  Central 

they    select    certain  o   Mediterranean  Sea,  Antioch  cara- 

routes  and  decide  which  van     down    Tigris    and    Euphrates 

are   best.     Trace  three  Valley    to    Persian    Gulf,    water    to 

routes     actually     used.  India 


303 


All  outline  map  on 
which  routes  may  be 
placed  is  valuable 


What  would  be  prob- 
able effect  of  blocking 
trade  routes?  Why? 
What  city  was  first 
affected?    Why? 


Have  pupils,  with 
map,  point  out  possible 
routes,  and  work  out 
advantages  or  disadvan- 
tages of  each 


Have  pupils  draw 
map  which  would  illus- 
trate Columbus'  idea  of 
reaching  Indies  by  sail- 
ing West 

On  above  map,  locate 
land  discovered,  show- 
ing that  Columbus  be- 
lieved he  had  reached 
the  East  Indies 


III. 


3.  Southern 

a.  Venice,  Mediterranean  Sea,  cara- 
van over  Isthmus  of  Suez,  Red  Sea, 
Indian  Ocean  to  India 
Interruption    of    this    trade    necessitated 
the   discovery   of  a   new   route   to  the 
East 

A.  Cause  of  interruption  of  trade 

1.  Turks  captured  Constantinople,  1452 

a.  Cut  off  northern  route  and  in- 
jured Genoa 

b.  Turks  harassed  traders  in  Medi- 
terranean, preventing  use  of  central 
route 

2.  Spread  of  Turkish  power  cut  south- 
ern route  a  few  years  later 

B.  Possible  ways  of  reaching  East  Indies 

1.  East 

Blockade  by  Turks 

2.  North 

Frozen  greater  part  of  year 

3.  Southern 

Portuguese  explored  in  that  direc- 
tion 

a.  Prince  Henry  the  Navigator 

b.  Diaz     reached    Cape    of    Good 
Hope,  1487 

4.  West 

Possible  only  if  earth  were  proved 
to  be  a  globe 
Summary 
Capture    of   Constantinople   blockaded 

available  routes  to  East 
Southern  route  dangerous,  supposedly 
Northern  was  impossible,  while  West- 
ern was  believed  to  be  impossible 
Discovery   of   America   followed   adoption 

of  western  route 
A.  Voyage     to     westward     planned     by 
Columbus 

1.  Native  of  Genoa,  and  therefore 
especially  interested  in  recovering 
trade  for  Genoa 

2.  Believed  earth  to  be  globe  from 

0.  Observation  of  boats  going  to  and 
from  Genoa 
b.  Study 

(1)  Aristotle 

(2)  Ptolemy 

(3)  Toscanelli 


204 

B.  Aid  for  voyage  finally  secured  from 
Spain 

1.  Earlier  attempts  imsuccessful 

a.  Genoa 

b.  Portugal 

c.  England 

C.  Voyage  completed.  Columbus,  seeking 
route  to  Indies  by  sailing  westward, 
reached  Islands  of  New  World  which  lay 
in  his  path,  and  believed  that  Indies  had 
been  found 


The  Defeat  of  the  Spanish  Armada 

Teacher,  Lucille  O'Shea,  Belmont  Avenue  School,  Newark 

Subject.  The  defeat  of  the  Spanish  Armada.  Its  effect  on  Elngland 
and  subsequently  on  America. 

Time.     Tm'o  or  three  periods  of  30  minutes  each. 

Teacher's  aim.  To  establish  the  importance  of  the  defeat  of  the 
Spanish  Armada  on  England's  progress  in  trade  and  colonization. 

Pupil's  aim.  Why  the  defeat  of  the  Spanish  Armada  is  so  important 
in  the  history  of  England  and  the  history  of  early  colonization  in 
America 

Pupil's  preparation.     (Review) 

1.  Spanish  supremacy  on  the  sea 

2.  Relations  existing  between  Spain  and  England.     Why? 

3.  What  Spain  hoped  to  accomplish  by  the  Spanish  Armada 

4.  Result  of  attack  of  the  Spanish  Armada 

Class  Activities 

Teacher's  Pupil's 

1.  After  the  defeat  of  the  Spanish      1.  England   declared,   "The   sea   is 

Armada,    what    was    the    atti-  ours."    The  world  seemed  open 

tude  of  England  toward  trade  to  them  and  they  determined 

on  the  sea?  to   trade   extensively 

2.  Being    able   to   trade   freely    on  2.  Manufacturing   flourished   in   all 

the  seas  had  what  effect  upon  parts     of     England,     for    this 

English     manufacturing?  trade    must   be   fed.     Wealth 

Wealth?  poured  into  England,  some  of 

which  came  from  Spanish 
ships  returning  to  Spain  from 
Mexico  and  Peru,  where  they 
had  obtained  their  riches 


20! 


3.  What  effect  did  this  prosperity 
have  on  English  life  and  edu- 
cation? 


4.  State  some  reasons  v;hy  England 
desired  to  plant  colonies  in 
America 


5.  Give  reasons  v/hy  English  col- 
onization in  America  was  so 
successful 


6.  The  defeat  of  the  Spanish  Ar- 
mada meant  what  to  Spain? 
To  England? 


3.  The   life   of   the   nobles   became 

more  gorgeous  and  that  of  the 
commoners  more  comfortable. 
New  houses  were  built  with 
windows  of  glass,  giving  sun- 
light and  health,  and  chimneys 
and  fireplaces  became  common. 
Comfortable  beds  and  chairs 
took  the  place  of  rude  benches 
and  pallets  of  straw.  Dishes 
of  pewter  and  silver  sup- 
planted the  wooden  bowls. 
A  much  better  grade  of  food 
was  used  by  all.  Men's  minds 
became  active  also.  Universi- 
ties and  grammar  school 
flourished.  Books  and  learn- 
ing were  brought  from  far  and 
near,  as  were  new  ideas. 
Printing  presses  became  com- 
mon in  England,  and  histories, 
books  of  travel,  stories,  essays, 
plays,  and  poetry  abounded. 
Learning  now  counted  as  much 
as  nobility 

4.  a.  That   attack    might    be    made 

upon   Spanish   fleets 

b.  The    opportunities    it    offered 

for  growth  of  a  great  people 

c.  The  relief  of  the  crov/ded  in- 

dustrial  condition   at   home 

d.  Laboring   classes   thrown   out 

of  employment  by  introduc- 
tion   into    England   of   rais- 
ing of  sheep 
c.  Religious  troubles 

5.  Their  motives  were  of  the  right 

kind — motives  which  formed  a 
permanent  and  lasting  basis 
on  which  to  establish  perma- 
nent colonization 

6.  a.  The    loss    of    supremacy    on 

seas;  wealth  and  power  in 
America  lost;  decline  of 
power  in  Europe 
b.  Trade  flourished,  wealth  In- 
creased, bringing  luxury  and 
comfort;  the  way  was  clear 
for  colonization  in  America 


15    GEOG 


2o6 

Method  of  the  Recitation 

Topics  to  appear  on  blackboard 

1.  England's  trade  prospered 

2.  Manufacturing  throve  and  wealth  poured  into  England 

3.  Life  of  nobles  and  commoners  made  more  attractive  and  comfortable 

by  many  improvements 

4.  Education  and  learning  furthered 

5.  Colonization  and  settlement  by  English  in  America  begun 

6.  Spain's  power  in  Europe  and  America  broken,  followed  by  decline. 

Summary 

By  the  defeat  of  the  Spanish  Armada  the  power  of  Spain  in  Europe 
and  America  was  broken.  This  defeat  of  Spain  left  England  free  to 
trade  on  the  seas  and  to  colonize  America. 

Application 

Topical  recitations  by  children  from  the  outline  or  a  written  lesson 
covering  the  general  aim  of  pupil. 

GRADE  VIII 

The  New  South 

Teacher,   Margaret   C.    Gallagher,    Vice-principal,   Madison    School,   Netvark 

Teacher's  aim.  To  teach  the  pupils  the  progressive  condition  of  our 
South  today  as  compared  with  its  conditions  before  and  immediately 
after  the  Civil  War. 

Topical  Outline  for  the  Teacher 

Subject  Matter  Method  of  Procedure 

1.  The   South  before  the  War  Before  taking  up  the  subject,  pupils 

a.  General  poverty  have  already  had  a  study  of  the 

h.  Poor  railroads  Civil  War  and  its  effect  upon  the 

c.  Scanty  manufacturing  estab-  condition  of  the  South  generally 

lishments 

d.  Poor   public  buildings 

e.  Capital  lay  with  a  few  rich  Preparatory  to  taking  up  this  sub- 

families ject     In    the     classroom,     pupils 

2.  Conditions    of    the    South    from  should  be  assigned  topics  I  and 

1865-1880  II  for  home  reading.     Encourage 

a.  General  poverty  them  to  come  prepared  to  discuss 

1)  Exhaustion     of     money  these  conditions  in  their  numer- 
by  Civil  War  ous  phases.     Designate  some 

2)  Labor    question.      Race  Read  to  the  class  selections  bring- 
question  causes  trouble  ing  out  labor  diflBculties 
between  laboring  white 

and  laboring  negro 


207 


b.  State  and  Confederate  bonds 

worthless 

c.  Railroads   ruined 

d.  Cities    in    disconsolate    con- 

dition 

e.  People   discouraged 

3.  The  building  up  of  the  South  as 
it  is  today  through  the  foUow- 
agencies 

a.  Cotton  lands 

1)  Location 

2)  Output 

a)  In  1790—4,000  bales 

b)  In    1904—14,000,000 

bales 

3)  A  modern  cotton  plan- 
tation 

b.  Fruit  and  truck  farms 

1)  Location 

a)  Carolina 

b)  Georgia 

c)  Texas 

2)  Climate  and  soil  con- 
ducive to  many  kinds 
of  fruits  and  vegetables 

c.  Timberlands 

1)  Importance.     Surpassed 

only     by     the     Pacific 
Northwest 

2)  Uses 

o)  Lumber 

b)  Railroad  ties 

c)  Turpentine 

d)  Resin 

3)  Location 

a)  Louisiana 

b)  Mississippi 

c)  Alabama 

d)  Georgia 

e)  Carolinas 

4)  Uses     of    timber    sec- 
tions    already     cut. 
After    timber    is    sold 
and   land   cleared   cot- 
ton is  raised 


Let  there  be  a  broad  sympathy  In 
discussing  these  topics,  as  we 
are  all  one  nation 


Locate  on  map  the  Black  Lands, 
extending  from  Georgia  through 
Mississippi  Valley  through  Black 
Lands  of  Texas 

What  things  have  helped  in  the 
raising  of  cotton? 

Read  to  the  class  a  description  of 
a  modern  plantation 

Show  pictures  of  plantations 

Question  pupils  as  to  the  value  of 
this  industry 

In  eastern  Texas  a  belt  of  land 
having  good  railroad  connection 
with  the  North  has  become  pros- 
perous because  its  season  is 
much  earlier  than  most  of  its 
competitors 


Question  as  to  value  of  pine  In 
the  industrial  world 

For  what  is  turpentine  used? 
Resin?  How  are  these  procured? 
Let  pupils  discuss  the  Important 
part  turpentine  and  resin  play  In 
the  "Naval  Stores"  industry 

Some  farmers  receive  as  much  as 
one  thousand  dollars  for  turpen- 
tine on  their  farms.  Show  pic- 
tures of  turpentine  industry 


208 


d.  Minerals 

1)  Coal 

2)  Iron 

3)  Lead 

4)  Zinc 

5)  Petroleum 

6)  Phosphate 

7)  Sulphur 

e.  Manufactures 

1)  Iron 

2)  Cotton   cloth 

3)  Tobacco 

a)  In  North    Carolina 

b)  In  Kentucky 

4)  Causes  of  the  success 
of  these  manufactures 

a)  Fuel      and      water 

power    abundant 

b)  Little    fuel    needed 

for  homes 
/.  Investments     of    capitalists 
from  the   South   and   also 
from  the  North 


g.  Establishment  of  banks; 
1500  national  banks  in  the 
South 


h.  Farmers'  banks 


Transportation    facilities 

1)  Good  railroads 

2)  Good  trolley  system 

3)  Enterprising  cities 
o)  Galveston 

b)  New  Orleans 

c)  Mobile 

d)  Pensacola 

e)  Savannah 

f)  Charleston 


Location  of  these  minerals  in  the 

South 
How   would   these  minerals   affect 

the  growth  of  the  South? 
The    coal    output    in    1906    was    40 

million  tons 
Iron  ore  is  most  abundant 
How  does  iron  ore  working  affect 

the  growth  of  a  section? 
What  mineral  found  in  the  South 

makes     iron     manufacturing     a 

prosperous  industry? 


Compare  with  the  North  in  these 
respects 


What   is   necessary   to   make   any 

business  successful? 
What    investments    in    the    South 

would  be  likely  to  be  safe  ones? 
What    benefit    does    a    community 

derive  from  investments? 
Of    what    uses    are    banks    to    the 

poor  people?     To  business  men? 

To  manufacturers? 
How,   then,    are   banks   aiding  the 

development  of  this  region? 
Explain  to  pupils  how  the  farmers' 

banks    loan   the    farmers    money 

at   a   low    per   cent  to   carry  on 

their  farming 
Of  what   service   are   these   banks 

to  growth  of  the  South? 
Let    pupils    discuss    how    railroads 

affect  the  growth  of  a  section 
Speak   of  the   effects    of   railroads 

on  each  industry 
Locate  on  map 
Explain    to    pupils    how    the    Eads 

system  of  jetties  has  helped  the 

cities  to  become   great  shipping 

ports.     Show   pictures 
Speak   of   the   rivalry   existing  be- 
tween  these   ports,   which   tends 


209 

(Before   we   became   involved   in  towards  the  greater  progress  of 

the  present  war,  two-fifths  of  each  port 
the  inward  and  outward  move- 
ment of  United   States  passed 
through  our  southern  ports) 

y.  Character  of  the  people  Why  should  we  admire  the  South- 

1)  Patience  em  people  as  a  whole? 

2)  Unflinching   courage  To    what    is    the    success    of    the 

3)  Great   pride   in    seeing  South  due  principally? 

their  cities  restored  to       WTiat  kind  of  citizens  help  to  build 
cities  of  prosperity  up  any  community?    Let  children 

4)  Generosity    in    loaning  give  their  ideas  freely 

money  to  help  build  up       Read   to  the   pupils,   or  preferably 
the  industries  let    the    pupils    read    Henry    W. 

Grady's    "Speech    on    The    New 

South" 

An  admirable  way  of  rounding  up  this  subject  is  by  the  use  of  lantern 
slides.     The  lesson  is  conducted  by  the  class  as  follows: 

1.  The  operator  throws  picture  on  the  screen 

2.  The  pupils  look  at  it  silently 

3.  Pupils  volunteer  to  go  to  the  screen  and  talk  to  the  class  about 
what  the  picture  represents 

4.  Members  of  the  class  supplement  the  talk 

5.  Pupils  question  the  speaker — questions  being  relative  to  the  work — 
that  is,  from  an  industrial  viewpoint,  an  historical  standpoint,  or  a  com- 
parative standpoint 

Causes  of  the  Revolutionary  War 

Teacher,  Edith  D.  Mitchell,  Culver  School,  MilhilU- 

Problem.    England's  Great  Problem 

First  Day 

For  preparation  of  this  lesson  the  following  questions  should  be  given 
the  previous  day: 

1.  Give   a    brief   account   of   English    life    in   the   eighteenth    century- 

(This  topic  may  be  assigned  to  one  pupil  to  report  to  the  class) 

2.  Compare  this  with  colonial  life  of  this  period 

a.  What  are  the  most  striking  differences? 

b.  How  do  you  account  for  these? 

3.  Do  you  think  England  could  understand  these  differences  as  well 

as  we  can  today?    "SMiy? 
Open  the  recitation  by  having  one  pupil  discuss  English  life  of  this 
period  under  the  topic  "Social  Life."     Have  the  other  members  of  the 
class  ask  questions  of  the  one  reciting,  they  themselves  contributing  as 


2IO 

much  as  possible.  In  the  same  way  discuss  the  "Industrial  Life"  and 
the  "Political  Life" — the  latter  to  be  treated  in  a  simple  manner. 

Follow  this  by  a  discussion  of  American  colonial  life  and  then  make 
comparisons.  From  this  the  class  should  realize  that  the  colonists  had 
come  to  have  ideas  different  from  England's  as  to  how  men  should  live, 
due  to  their  life  in  the  wilderness. 

Such  questions  should  be  asked  as,  "Just  imagine  that  you  were  living 
in  these  early  times  and  you  had  given  up  your  home  in  England  to 
come  to  live  in  the  American  wilderness,  how  different  is  your  life  here?" 
"How  do  you  spend  your  days?"  "Do  you  like  it  as  well  as  you  did  in 
England?"     "Why?" 

Encourage  pupils  to  ask  questions  of  each  other  and  to  give  their 
opinions  of  the  subject. 

Let  the  discussion  of  the  mo'de  of  living  lead  to  the  problem  of  govern- 
ment. 

"If  your  life  in  this  country  is  more  simple  than  in  England  will  you 
need  the  same  kind  of  government?"  "Are  you  having  the  same  kind?" 
"What  suggestions  would  you  make  as  to  a  change  in  government?" 
"Do  you  think  England  can  see  things  in  the  same  light  that  you  do?" 

Devote  the  last  few  minutes  to  summarizing.  Have  the  pupils  develop 
the  following  outline: 

England's  great  problem 

1.  Misunderstands   her  colonies   because  of 

a.  New  ideas  as  to  how  men  should  live,   due  to  their  life  in 

the  wilderness 

b.  New  ideas  of  government 

(To  be  concluded  the  next  day) 

Second  Day 

On  the  second  day  have  the  same  questions  before  the  class  as  on 
the  day  before.  Also  have  on  the  blackboard  the  outline  as  far  as  it 
was  developed. 

Review  quickly  the  tO'pics  previously  discussed,  namely,  how  the 
social  and  the  political  life  of  the  colonists  differ  from  the  mother 
country. 

From  the  comparison  of  industrial  life  between  the  mother  country 
and  her  colonies  as  given  yesterday  the  class  should  realize  that  the 
colonists  had  come  to  have  interests  different  from  England's  in  trade 
and  industry. 

We  are  still  living  in  colonial  times.  "WTiy  does  your  father  wish  to 
trade  with  the  Dutch?"  "Wouldn't  it  be  better  for  him  to  get  these 
things  from  England?"  "Why  isn't  he  content  to  buy  everything  from 
his  mother  country  instead  of  trying  to  manufacture  in  such  crude  ways?" 

These  problems  will  form  a  foundation  for  the  study  of  the  trade  and 
navigation  laws. 

This  discussion  should  lead  up  to  the  point  that  the  colonists,  being 
three  thousand  miles  from  England,  have  become  very  independent. 


211 

"On  the  map  locate  England."  "Locate  the  colonies."  "How  great  is 
the  distance?"  "Suppose  you  were  to  leave  your  mother  today  and  go 
three  thousand  miles  across  the  ocean  to  live  in  England,  what  lessons 
would  you  learn  by  being  apart  from  your  mother?" 

Then  lead  the  class  to  see  that  such  a  condition  existed  in  colonial 
days.  The  colonists,  being  isolated,  had  a  feeling  of  independence,  were 
anxious  to  do  for  themselves,  and  were  sure  they  could  do.  However, 
England  could  not  understand  the  wild  and  restless  ways  of  her  children, 
and  her  mismanagement  of  the  colonies  later  on  was  due  to  this  mis- 
understanding.    Good  feeling  alone  could  keep  them  united. 

In  summarizing  "England's  Great  Problem,"  let  the  pupils  develop  the 
outline  as  follows: 

England's  Great  Problem 

1.  Misunderstands  her  colonies  because  of 

a.  New  ideas  as  to  how  men  should  live,  due  to  their  life  in 

the  wilderness 

b.  New  ideas  of  government 

c.  Difference  in  trade  and  industry 

d.  A  feeling  of  independence,  due  to  isolation 

The  following  problems   should  then  be  taken  up 
American  conditions 
Immediate  causes  of  the  war 
Trade  and  navigation  laws 
Sugar  Act;     Stamp  Act 
New  taxes  of  1767;    Boston  Massacre 
How  England's  problem  might  have  been  solved 
How  the  Great  Problem  was  solved 

How  History  Work  is  Conducted 

Teacher,  Ethel  Rake,  Chatham 

In  studying  United  States  History  we  have  endeavored  to  use  only 
those  facts  which  explain  the  present  and  prepare  for  the  future.  Only 
so  much  of  the  past  as  contributes  directly  to  the  present  or  future 
deserves  a  place  in  the  school  curriculum. 

The  work  has  been  based  entirely  on  one  central  thought.  "The 
DevelODment  of  Our  Nation."  The  topics  for  consideration  under  tins 
were  suggested  by  the  pupils  themselves.  One  pupil  believed  our 
development  due  to  the  rapid  growth  of  manufacturing,  another  to  educa- 
tion, and  another  to  improved  methods  of  transportation.  A  number  of 
such   topics   were   suggested    and    developed   in   outline   form    and   then 

reported  on  by  the  class.  a^«,.<^i. 

During  these  discussions  many  of  the  present  conditions  n  America 
were  attributed  to  the  European  war.  Pupils  began  to  ask  auest.cns 
rncerning  the  causes  of  wars  and  the  final  outcomes.  They  wanted  to 
know  what  part  America  might  have  in  the  present,  conflict. 


212 

Finally,  we  decided  to  study  the  wars  in  which  our  nation  has  been 
involved  in  order  to  better  understand  the  present  situation  both  in 
Europe  and  Mexico.  The  class  reasoned  that  v/ar  is  a  disease;  that  it 
is  contagious;  and  that  the  world  must  find  the  cause  for  this  disease 
before  it  can  find  a  remedy.  This  reasoning  led  to  the  study  and  com- 
parison of  the  causes  of  all  wars  in  which  our  nation  has  taken  part. 

The  interest  shown  by  the  class  was  the  guide  in  developing  the  study 
of  important  events.  In  many  cases  our  pupils  preferred  to  group  the 
important  events  around  certain  individuals.  There  we  found  an  oppor- 
tunity to  study  leaders  and  their  influence  on  their  own  times  and  suc- 
ceeding generations. 

The  last  lessons  in  our  study  of  American  wars  were  given  to  the 
result  of  wars.  After  realizing  the  ravages  of  war  and  its  futility  in 
many  instances  they  wanted  to  discuss  possible  remedies.  After  various 
suggestions  were  considered  the  class  decided  that  arbitration  must  be 
one  alternative  for  vs^ar,  and  so  decided  on  that  subject  as  the  topic  for 
their  next  study.  The  study  of  Arbitration  occupied  the  class  for  three 
days,  as  follows: 

1.  The  first  lesson  on  Arbitration  was  a  general  class  discussion,  the 
purpose  of  which  was  to  develop  a  suitable  outline,  as  a  basis  for  study. 

Pupils  expressed  a  desire  to  know  more  about:  (a)  the  real  meaning 
of  the  term  Arbitration;  (b)  its  uses;  (c)  how  it  had  prevented  war  in 
the  past;     (d)  some  of  the  present  day  tendencies  toward  Arbitration. 

The  class  was  divided  into  groups  with  a  chairman  in  charge  of  each 
group  to  find  out  more  about  the  topics  mentioned  for  the  next  day's 
lesson. 

2.  The  following  day  the  reports  were  given.  Those  who  reported 
on  the  first  topic  illustrated  by  referring  to  the  changes  from  primitive 
methods  of  settling  disputes  between  individuals. 

The  second  group  cited  instances  of  the  use  of  arbitration  in  settling 
labor  troubles  in  our  own  country  and  touched  on  its  use  in  international 
disputes. 

A  third  group  endeavored  to  show  how  arbitration  might  have  been 
used  as  a  preventive  of  war.  At  that  point  we  found  a  considerable  dif- 
ference in  opinions. 

The  last  report  for  the  day  was  on  peace  conferences,  both  national  and 
international.  Pupils  attempted  to  show  reasons  for  the  partial  failure 
in  each  case. 

3.  The  preceding  lessons  led  to  the  discussion  for  the  third  day — "A 
practical  union  of  the  nations  in  a  world-wide  peace  league." 

A  few  pupils  reported  on  previous  movements  in  that  direction,  par- 
ticularly on  the  Hague  Peace  Conferences.  They  pointed  out  the  in- 
effectiveness of  these  movements,  and  from  the  current  literature  they 
had  read,  attempted  to  formulate  the  essential  principles  necessary  to 
peace.    Their  conclusions  were: 


213 

First,  that  there  must  be  equality  among  the  members,  not  equality 
in  size  or  wealth  but  in  government.  One  pupil  said,  "I  think  each  nation 
will  have  to  give  up  the  idea  of  trying  to  be  bigger  and  better  than 
another  nation.    I  don't  think  they  hate  each  other  as  men." 

Second,  all  must  agree  to  a  decision  of  ihe  majority. 

Third,  the  league  must  have  power  to  enforce  its  decisions. 

The  methods  used  in  the  development  of  the  topic  "Arbitration"  were 
the  methods  used  largely  in  the  development  of  all  the  topics  studied 
during  the  year. 

These  class  discussions  were  socialized  recitations  with  the  emphasis 
almost  entirely  on  the  interest  of  the  pupils.  All  ideas  were  given 
voluntarily:  as  a  result,  a  certain  few  did  nearly  all  the  talking.  To 
counteract  this  tendency  the  class  was  divided  into  two  sections.  Those 
who  regularly  volunteered  were  asked  to  make  out  several  good  ques- 
tions each  day  on  the  subject  to  be  discussed  and  ask  some  one  from 
the  other  section  to  give  the  desired  information.  It  was  taken  for 
granted  that  each  one  was  prepared  and  altogether  capable  of  dis- 
cussing the  question  but  not  quite  so  willing  to  volunteer  as  some  of 
his  less  reticent  companions.  No  one  was  allowed  to  believe  that  he 
was  considered  incapable;  and  before  long  all  were  taking  part  to  some 
extent.  Later  in  the  year,  the  reticent  group  prepared  questions  on 
alternate  days. 

Stenographic  reports  of  a  few  recitations  indicated  that  thirty  per 
cent  of  all  questions  were  asked  by  pupils;  and  that  approximately  sixty- 
five  per  cent  of  the  entire  recitation — questions  and  answers — was  carried 
on  by  the  pupils. 

The  Westward  Movement 

Teacher,  Fannie  C.  Watson,  Massachusetts  Avenue  School,  Atlantic  City 

The  following  plan  may  cover  four  or  five  lessons: 

The  purpose  of  the  lessons  is,  first,  by  the  study  of  a  typical  community 
to  show  how  the  West  was  settled;  second,  to  emphasize  the  importance 
of  the  westward  march  of  the  people  in  the  industrial  history  of  the 
nineteenth  century;  and  third,  to  arouse  in  the  pupil  an  interest  in,  and 
appreciation  of  the  conditions  which  contributed  to  this  movement. 

It  is  expected  that  pupils  will  make  use  of  textbooks,  maps,  charts, 
pictures  and  any  supplementary  material  available.  References  to  such 
material  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  should  be  definite. 

I.     Review  of  conditions  favoring  western  settlement 

A.  The  pathfinders 

B.  Harrison    and   Jackson   break   the    power  of   the    Indians   in 

""a  Middle  West 
II.     The   influence   of  mountains   and    rivers   on   migration  and   settle- 
ment, typical  problems 

A.  From  maps  trace  the  natural  barriers  and  great  highways 

B.  How  did  travelers  reach  the  West? 


214 
t 

C.  Why  did  immigrants  settle  the  southern  part  of  Indiana  and 

Illinois  before  the  northern? 

D.  Why  did  the  river  towns  of  the  West  have  an  advantage  over 

those  on  the  shores  of  the  Great  Lakes? 

E.  What  improved  means  of  communication  were  establishes  as 

a  result  of  the  western  movement? 

III.  The  rush  to  the  AVest  after  the  War  of  1812 

Immigration  after  the  war 

1.  Conditions  in  Europe 

2.  Opportunities  in  America — in  the  East;    in  the  West 

3.  Conditions   in   the   East   causing   emigration 

IV.  The  beginning  of  a  typical  community  in  the  West 

A.  Selection  of  a  suitable  site.     Conditions  favorable  to 

1.  Health 

2.  Business 

Pupils  may  imagine  they  are  to  select  a  suitable  site  for  a 
settlement.     For  what  would   they  look? 

B.  Common  interests  of  settlers 

In  manner  of  life  in  settlement 

C.  Simple  family   life   of  settlers 

1.  Homes 

2.  Church  and  school 

3.  Occupations 

4.  Pleasures 

V.  The  growth  of  the  community  modified  by 

A.  The  character  of  the  people 

B.  The  character  of  the  site 

C.  Natural  geographical  conditions 

1.  Soil 

2.  Climate 

3.  Natural  resources 

4.  Surface  features 

What  geographical  conditions  were  prominent  in  the  growth 
of  New  Orleans,  St.  Louis,  Cincinnati  and  Chicago? 
VI.    Membership  in  the  community.     What  did  it  mean? 
Cooperation  for  larger  opportunities  to 

1.  Protect  life  and  health 

2.  Accumulate  wealth 

3.  Educate   the   young 

4.  Satisfy  social  and  religious  desires 

5.  Establish  representative   self  government 
VII.     Problems  of  application 

A.  Have  pupils  compare  the  beginning  of  their  community  with 

this  one 

1.  Points  in  which  they  were  alike 

2.  Points  in  which  they  differed 

B.  Have  pupils  discuss  the  common  interests  of  this  community 


215 

C.  What  are  some  of  the  benefits  that  a  citizen  receives  from 

his  community? 

D.  What  are  some  ways  in  which  a  citizen  may  contribute  to 

the  welfare  of  his  community? 

CIVICS 

GRADE  VIII 

The  Water  Supply  as  an  Element  of  Community  Welfare 
in  Atlantic  City 

Teacher,  Bthel  C.  Hamniel,  Richmond  Avenue  School,  Atlantic  City 

Aim.  To  find  out  what  the  pupils  know  concerning  the  water  supply 
of  Atlantic  City  and  lead  them  to  realize  the  responsibility  of  each 
citizen  in  keeping  the  water  pure. 

Approach.  WTiere  does  the  water  supply  of  Atlantic  City  come  from? 
Is  it  pure?    '^A'^lat  is  the  citizen's  responsibility  toward  the  water  supply? 

Illustration.  The  proper  use  of  water  fountains  in  the  school  and  on 
the  Board-walk.  Actual  demonstration  by  some  of  the  pupils  of  the 
correct  use  of  fountains  in  the  school,  showing  how  unsanitary  they 
become  when  misused. 

I.     Source  of  the  water  supply 

1.  Water  mains 

a.  How  are  they  connected  with  the  houses? 
h.  Need    for    strong    mains    to    carry    the    water    across    the 
meadows 

2.  The  pumping  station.    Report  on  a  visit  which  may  have  been 

made  there 

3.  Artesian    wells.      Do    they    ever    furnish    sufficient    supply    of 

water  for  the  city? 

4.  The  reservoir 

a.  W'here  is  it  located? 

h.  How  does  it  help  to  make  the  supply  more  certain? 
II.     Purity  of  the  supply.     How  is  the  purity  of  the  water  maintained? 

1.  Chemical  examination 

0.  Who  makes  these  tests? 
h.  How  often  are  they  made? 

2.  Proper  drainage 

3.  Filtration.     Where  does  this  take  place? 

4.  Cause  for  occasional  discoloration 

III.    The  city's  part  in  providing  the  water  supply 

1.  Organization    of    the    water    department.      Report    of    a    visit 

made  by  some  of  the  pupils  to  the  office  of  the  department, 
telling  of  the  work  done  by  the  city 

2.  Variation    in    quantity    needed    in    different    sea.sons    makes   a 

special   problem   for  Atlantic   City 


2l6 

a-.  How  great  is  the  variation? 

b.  How  does  the  city  provide  for  this? 

3.  Prevention  of  unnecessary  leakage.     Need  for  constant  super- 

vision 

4.  How  the  city  pays  for  this  part  of  its  work 
IV.     The  citizen's  part  regarding  the  water  supply 

1.  With  respect  to  liealth 

a.  Keeping  spigots  clean 

b.  Use  of  individual  drinking  cups 

2.  Protection  from  fire 

a.  Danger  from  waste 

b.  What  are  high   pressure  mains? 

3.  Protecting  pipes  from  freezing 

Newark  Taxes 

Teacher,  Anna  Achenbach,  South  Eighth  Street  School,  Newark 

Aims.  To  cultivate  intelligent,  appreciative  citizenship.  To  familiarize 
pupils  with  the  advantages  and  protection  of  a  well-organized  city 
government,  and  to  give  them  some  idea  of  how  the  expenses  of  such 
a  government  are  met. 

Purposes  of  taxation 
Remind  the  class  of  the  officer  at  the  street  crossing  near  the  school, 

and   of  what  his   presence  there   means,   as   one   instance   of   police 

protection. 
Call  to  their  attention  the  purpose  of  the  fire  house  in  their  vicinity. 
Ask  how   many   of  them   use   the   public   library   and  what   such   use 

costs,  if  they  are  careful  to  observe  the  rules. 
Get  them  to  name  some   other  buildings  and  institutions  maintained 

by  the  city  for  the  public  good. 
Lead  them  to  see  something  of  what  the  school  stands  for  in  culture, 

knowledge,  association — preparation  for  life. 
Then  ask  them  what  all  this  splendid  and  expensive  equipment  costs 

the  individual  In  proportion  to  the  opportunities  it  offers. 
Read  to  the  class  from  "The  Street  and  Life  of  the  City" — Newark 

Study,   p.   89,   as   an  illustration  of  the  importance   and  use  of  the 

streets. 
In  like  manner  discuss  briefly  such  topics  as: 

The  protection  afforded  by  the  Board  of  Health 

The    convenience    and    necessity    of    lights,    public    water,    supplies, 
scavenger  service,  etc. 

The  necessity  for  efficient  service  from  the  city  officials,  who  have 
charge   of   all    departments,    and   who    should    work   for   the  best 
interests  of  the  whole  community. 
These  purposes  should  be  tabulated  in  brief  form  and  learned.     They 

are  some  of  the   conveniences  and   privileges  enjoyed  by   all   alike 

in  the  city,  and  without  which  life  here  would  be  neither  comfortable, 

happy,  nor  safe. 


2iy 

Every  privilege  or  benefit  implies  a  duty,  or  obligation. 

Who   should   bear  the   expense  of  maintaining  all   these   departments 

of   government  and   these   public  institutions? 
How  is  that  expense  met? 

Sources  of  taxation 
Just  as  the   purposes  of  taxation  were  developed   as   far  as   possible 
from  what  the  children  knew,  supplemented  and  enlarged  upon  by 
the  teacher,  so  the  sources  of  taxation  should  be  taught  in  the  same 
way  and  finally  tabulated  in  some  such  form  as  this 
Sources  of  taxation  in  Newark 

1.  Real  estate 

2.  Personal  property 

3.  Poll  tax  of  the  voters 

4.  Franchise  tax  on  public  utilities,  apportioned  by  the  state 

5.  The  city's   share  of  railroad   tax,  apportioned  to  the  schools  by 

the  state 

6.  Fines — illustrate 

What  kind  of  taxes  are  the  above  to  the  people  or  companies 
that  pay  them?     (Direct  taxes) 

7.  License  fees  paid  by 

Saloons 
Jitney  busses 
Moving  picture  places 
Theaters 
Dance   halls 
Peddlers,  etc. 
What  kind  of  taxes  are  the  above  to  the  people  who  patronize 

these  places  of  amusement,  saloons,  etc.?     (Indirect  taxes; 

explain)  ' 

From  the  foregoing,  deduce  the  following  facts: 

A.  That  the  general  purposes  of  all  taxation  are 

1.  To  meet  the  expenses  of  government 

2.  To  provide  for  protection  or  safety 

3.  To  make   public   improvements   for  the   benefit  of  all 

4.  To  add   to   the   happiness    and    general    convenience   of   the 

community 

B.  That  taxes   are  of  two   kinds 

1.  Direct 

2.  Indirect 

C.  That,   although  our  system  of  taxation  is  by  no  means   perfect, 

the  general  theory  is  to  have  those  pay  the  taxes 

1.  Who  are  best  able — property  owners 

2.  Those   who   enjoy  the   privilege   of   making  their  living  out 

of  the  public   directly— those   who   pay  licenses 

3.  Those    indirectly,    who    can    afford    luxuries,    amusements- 

things  that  are  not  absolute  necessities 


2l8 

Application 

Make  this  work  a  basis  for  the  teaching  of  taxation  in  arithmetic 
Begin  with  local  taxation 
Have  someone  bring  a  tax  bill 

Get  information  from  recent  statistics   (found  at  the  library) 
For  what  information  would  you  ask? 
Teach  how  to  find  tax  rate 
Apply  to  individual   taxpayer,   etc.,  or 

Have  the  pupils  write  an  Imaginary  conversation  between  a  dis- 
gruntled taxpayer  and  a  public-spirited  citizen,  as  an  exercise 
in  composition. 

Note.  This  plan  may  serve  for  tliree  or  more  lessons  In  civics, 
dependent  upon  the  detail  with  which  It  is  worked  out  and  the  length 
of  the  lesson  period. 


UCLA-Young  Research  Library 

LB1583   .N46 

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